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TV Technica 2024: Our picks for the best of TV


From wacky crime capers and dystopian video game adaptions to sweeping historical epics, 2024 had a little of everything

Credit: Aurich Lawson | Getty Images

Editor’s note: Warning: Although we’ve done our best to avoid spoiling anything major, please note this list does include a few specific references to several of the listed shows that some might consider spoiler-y.

This was another good year for television, with established favorites sharing space on our list with some intriguing new shows. Really, 2024 had a little of everything, from wacky crime capers (Bad Monkey) and Satanic Panic (Hysteria) to dystopian video game adaptations (Fallout) and sweeping historical epics (Shōgun), with plenty of genre-mashup delights in between. While streaming platforms continue to dominate, the selection is more evenly distributed across them this year, with only Hulu and Netflix snagging more than two slots (depending on whether or not you lump Hulu together with Disney+ after the merger).

As always, we’re opting for an unranked list, with the exception of our “year’s best” vote at the very end, so you might look over the variety of genres and options and possibly add surprises to your eventual watchlist. We invite you to head to the comments and add your own favorite TV shows released in 2024.

Interior Chinatown (Hulu)

Credit: Hulu

This meta action comedy is showrunner Charles Yu’s adaption of his own 2020 satirical novel of the same name, which employed the screenplay format as a narrative structure. Interior Chinatown keeps that concept; here, the characters are, in turn, characters in a police procedural called Black and White, clearly modeled on the Law and Order franchise.

Jimmy O. Yang plays Willis Wu, a waiter in a Chinese restaurant who is initially unaware that he is just a background character on the show within the show. Then he witnesses a kidnapping and detectives Sarah Green (Lisa Gilroy) and Miles Turner (Sullivan Jones) are called in to investigate. They actually can’t see or hear Willis—or any background character, for that matter—unless he happens to have a purpose to the spotlight action. So Willis and Chinatown’s residents are just going about their business and every now and then the spotlight flashes on and Green and Turner saunter through for a “scene.”

As Willis tries to solve the case of his missing older brother with the help of supporting character Detective Lana Lee (Chloe Bennet), he uncovers a possible criminal underground enterprise in Chinatown and some well-kept family secrets. The writing is clever, the plot twists abound, the characters are fully drawn, and there are plenty of humorous and heartfelt moments to break up the main action. Special shout-out to Ronny Chieng as Willis’ best friend Fatty, who has to take over Willis’ waiter duties and inadvertently becomes a viral sensation with his rude outbursts directed at non-Asian customers. White people actually start flocking to the restaurant to be verbally abused by “Mean Waiter,” much to Fatty’s exasperation. It’s those kinds of unexpected twists that make Interior Chinatown unique.

Jennifer Ouellette

The Penguin (Max)

Credit: HBO/Max

My pick for the best television show in 2024 is a limited series based on the Batman universe character: The Penguin. It’s a sequel of sorts to The Batman film released in March 2022. The best way to describe the series, I believe, is The Sopranos comes to Gotham, but with even more grit and atmosphere. Batman is not involved at all. Colin Farrell plays the Penguin, whose real name is Oz Cobb, and who is struggling to rise to power in the fictional city’s criminal underworld. Viewers have to struggle to recognize Farrell, who is acting a tour de force beneath some pretty involved prosthetics and makeup.

The other standout performer is Cristin Milioti, who plays a presumed psychopathic serial killer but, well, I don’t want to spoil it. She’s fabulous. The whole show is amazing, actually, and I’m not normally one for comic book movies or television. I don’t recommend binging it but rather sipping each of the eight episodes as if it were fine wine.

Eric Berger

Sweetpea (Starz)

Credit: Starz

Are killer psychopaths born or made? One might ponder that question after watching Sweetpea, the story of a shy young woman who has been bullied or ignored much of her life and finally snaps, with fatal consequences. Based on the novel by CJ Skuse, the series stars Ella Purnell (of Yellowjackets fame) as Rhiannon, an administrative assistant at her local newspaper who lives with her ailing dad and dog. But then everything goes wrong at once: her father dies, her dog is run over, and her sister insists on selling the family home, forcing Rhiannon to find a new place—and the estate agent is Rhiannon’s high school nemesis, Julia (Nicole Lecky).

Sweetpea is essentially a revenge fantasy. It would be so easy for the viewer to just become exasperated with Rhiannon’s passivity and occasional self-pitying rants, but Purnell’s intense performance brings out the rage and violence simmering underneath that quiet surface. Rhiannon really is invisible to most people, brought home when she takes refuge from the rain at an underpass and a passing drunk guy ends up peeing all over her. “Oh, sorry, didn’t see you there,” he shrugs. It’s a powerful moment when an enraged Rhiannon stabs this complete stranger over and over, screaming, “Can you see me now?” Along with the guilt and fear come increased confidence and strength, and maybe even a love interest—but can Rhiannon really get away with murder?

Jennifer Ouellette

Matlock (CBS)

Credit: CBS

Children of the late ’80s/early ’90s will no doubt have fond memories of the popular mystery series/legal drama Matlock, starring Andy Griffith in the title role of Andy Matlock, criminal defense attorney. We now have a gender-flipped version starring Kathy Bates, but it’s not a remake. Rather, Bates plays a wealthy retired lawyer named Madeleine Kingston who goes undercover as a legal assistant at a large law firm, taking on the alias surname of Matlock because the show was one of her deceased daughter’s favorites.

Matty’s objective: to find evidence that the firm covered up the fact that an opioid manufactured by one of their pharmaceutical giant clients was highly addictive, thereby contributing to her daughter’s death by opioid overdose. But first she has to prove herself by helping win several smaller cases, all while juggling a dual identity and nosing around the firm’s files on the sly. Honestly, it’s refreshing to see a simple, case-of-the-week (with a longer season arc) network series with likable characters, good writing, and strong performances throughout the cast. It’s a winning combination that makes Matlock the perfect comfort watch.

Jennifer Ouellette

Star Trek: Lower Decks S5 (Paramount+)

Credit: Paramount+

The animated adventures of the crew of the USS Cerritos had its fifth and final season this year. Set in a post-Voyager, pre-Picard timeframe, which for many is Starfleet in its golden era, it was initially dismissed by some as “Rick and Morty in space” due to previous work from its creators. But over the past five seasons, Lower Decks has proven to be Star Trek through and through—just animated and also funny. And quite bawdy.

It’s fair to say that there’s a lot of fan service in Lower Decks, but also that this fan likes what he’s being served. Deep cuts abound, from across decades of Trek canon, and like previous seasons, a number of guest stars show up in episodes, including Brent Spiner (Data in The Next Generation), Alfre Woodard (Lily Sloan in First Contact), Andrew Robinson (Elim Garak in Deep Space 9), Alexander Siddig (Julian Bashir in DS9), Jolene Blalock (T’Pol in Enterprise), and Garrett Wang (Harry Kim in Voyager). But perhaps not entirely as you might expect them—the overarching plot this season involves rifts being opened to parallel universes in the multiverse, potentially destroying them all.

At the time of writing the final episode has yet to air, but the one that precedes it (“Fissure Quest”) is Lower Decks at its very finest. It paints Starfleet at its optimistic best, pokes a whole bunch of nostalgia buttons, and makes me laugh repeatedly. Not every episode in season 5 has been quite as good, but it wouldn’t be real Trek if there wasn’t the occasional miss.

It is within the realms of possibility that Paramount+’s cancellation will not be the end for the show, with fans hoping another streaming network could pick it up, the way that Netflix took over showing the second season of Star Trek: Prodigy that Paramount wanted to shelve. Right now, the odds of that happening are pretty remote, though, and in the spirit of optimism best embodied by Mariner and her gang, let’s not be sad it’s over, let’s be happy it happened.

Jonathan Gitlin

The Cowboy Channel’s “Texas Swing”

Credit: Steve Wrubel/The Cowboy Channel

My personal end-of-year TV list would never be complete without a nod to The Cowboy Channel, i.e., the only place where you can follow your favorite cowboys and cowgirls throughout the rodeo season as they compete to rack up enough wins to qualify for the Wrangler National Finals Rodeo (NFR) in Las Vegas in December. Seven years after its founding, The Cowboy Channel has clearly had a significant impact on boosting the visibility of the sport, as well as attendance at live rodeo events.

This year, we’re focusing on the so-called “Texas Swing”: five major rodeos in the Lone Star state running from the end of January through mid-April, in Fort Worth, San Antonio, Houston, Austin, and San Angelo. The rodeo season runs year-round, officially from October 1 through September 30. But the Texas Swing collectively pays out several million dollars, giving athletes a chance to take an early lead in the rankings. (Most event winners at the Houston rodeo in particular typically end up qualifying for the NFR.) So there’s a lot at stake, and The Cowboy Channel’s extensive coverage and commentary is essential viewing for following those stakes.

Jennifer Ouellette

The Lincoln Lawyer S3 (Netflix)

Credit: Netflix

Crime novel publishing juggernaut Michael Connelly already had one great TV series to his name, based on fictional detective Harry Bosch (the eponymous Bosch). Then Netflix developed The Lincoln Lawyer, based on Connelly’s criminal defense attorney Mickey Haller, starring Manuel Garcia-Rulfo in the title role. The nickname comes from the fact that Mickey often works out of his Lincoln Navigator. (There was also a 2011 film adaption, The Lincoln Lawyer, starring Matthew McConaughey, but the two projects are very different.)

Season 3 was based on Connelly’s 2013 novel, The Gods of Guilt, and it’s adapted exceptionally well for television. As always, Garcia-Rulfo is terrific as Haller, surrounded by a top-notch supporting cast, notably Mickey’s legal aide and ex-wife, Lorna (Becki Newton), freelance investigator Cisco (Angus Sampson), and Izzy (Jazz Raycole), a former client who becomes Mickey’s personal driver (and later the office manager). But as with Bosch, it’s the city of Los Angeles that truly shines, a character in its own right, always lurking in the background.

Jennifer Ouellette

True Detective: Night Country (HBO)

Credit: HBO

HBO’s True Detective, created by Nic Pizzolatto, was a pop-culture sensation when it debuted in 2014. (Remember “time is a flat circle”?) Its sophomore outing lacked the original’s surreal magic, but S3 was a solid return to form, mixing elements of noir and procedural drama to weave a haunting tale of fractured time and memory. Pizzolatto wasn’t involved in this year’s even stronger fourth season, subtitled Night Country, with Issa Lopez taking over as showrunner. Lopez has reinvented the series, creating what she viewed as a “dark mirror” to Pizzolatto’s three seasons that stands on its own.

Night Country is set in the fictional town of Ennis, Alaska, where eight scientists at a research station mysteriously go missing one night with no trace, leaving a severed tongue at the scene. They are found soon after out on the ice, naked bodies tangled and frozen together in a pile, with their clothes neatly folded on the snow. It’s up to Detectives Liz Danvers (Jodie Foster) and Evangeline Navarro (Kali Reis) to crack the case. Night Country only tangentially evokes the Yellow King mythology of the prior three seasons,  but it does capture the anthology series’ essential spookiness and supernatural undertones despite the all-too-human solution to the case.

Jennifer Ouellette

Only Murders in the Building S4 (Hulu)

Credit: Hulu

This charming Emmy-nominated comedy series has made our “Best of TV” list every season, and 2024 is no exception. Only Murders in the Building stars Steve Martin, Martin Short, and Selena Gomez as Charles, Oliver, and Mabel, all residents of the same Manhattan apartment complex, the Arconia. The unlikely trio teamed up to launch their own true crime podcast whenever someone died in the building under suspicious circumstances, chronicling their independent investigation to solve the murder. There’s no shortage of podcast fodder since this single building has a shockingly high murder rate.

This time around, the trio investigates the death of Charles’ longtime stunt double Sazz (Jane Lynch), who was shot dead in his apartment while he and his pals were celebrating wrapping the prior podcast season. It’s a complicated mystery involving the strange residents of the Arcadia’s West Tower, a bar specifically for stunt performers, and a film adaption of the trio’s first-season podcast. Eugene Levy, Zach Galifianakis, and Eva Longoria play fictional versions of themselves cast as Charles, Oliver, and Mabel, respectively, and naturally get into the sleuthing spirit. And Meryl Streep makes a welcome return as Oliver’s actress girlfriend Loretta.

This season was a bit more meta than the prior three, largely because so much of the action shifts to Hollywood for several episodes—every episode title is a reference to an actual film—as well as a foray to Long Island to hide out with Charles’ sister Doreen (Melissa McCarthy). That served to keep things fresh after four seasons; S5 will focus on the death of the building’s doorman, found floating in the Arcadia’s fountain in the season finale. OMITB will eventually run out of fresh takes on its clever concept, but it hasn’t done so yet.

Jennifer Ouellette

The Sticky (Prime Video)

Credit: Prime Video

Perhaps you’ve heard of the infamous Great Canadian Maple Syrup Heist of 2011–2012, in which a group of thieves managed to steal over $18 million worth of maple syrup from a strategic reserve storage facility in Quebec. If not, you’ll probably find yourself googling it after watching The Sticky, a delightfully dark comic series very (very!) loosely based on the heist.

Margo Martindale plays Ruth Landry, a struggling maple syrup farmer who is about to lose her farm to the greedy head of the collective, Leonard (Guy Nadon). So she conspires with shady businessman Mike (Chris Diamantopoulos) and security guard Remy (Guillaume Cyr) to steal millions of dollars of maple syrup in revenge. Their elaborate plan soon hits all kinds of darkly hilarious snags that lead to more serious repercussions. With its flinty, morbid humor and collection of eccentric characters—including a star turn by Jamie Lee Curtis as a tough mafia enforcer named Bo Shea—The Sticky is definitely channeling the Cohn brothers’ Fargo. But series creators Brian Donovan and Ed Herro have added their unique stamp to make it very much their own.

Jennifer Ouellette

St. Denis Medical (NBC)

Credit: NBC

Just when we thought smart, sophisticated network sitcoms were a disappearing relic from the golden age of broadcast television, NBC comes out with St. Denis Medical, a thoroughly enjoyable mockumentary in the style of The Office and Parks and Recreation. Here the setting is the chronically underfunded ER of an Oregon hospital, and the camera crew follows the overworked doctors and nurses as they go about their daily duties.

You’ve got Joyce (Wendi McLendon-Covey), the ambitious executive director; Alex (Allison Tolman), the workaholic supervising nurse; Bruce (Josh Lawson), a cocky trauma surgeon; burnt-out emergency physician Ron (David Alan Grier); newly hired nurse Matt (Mekki Leeper), who hails from a strict religious group in Montana; and his crush, the cool and capable nurse, Serena (Kahyun Kim). The format may be familiar, but the show nonetheless feels fresh, thanks to top-notch writing and performances from its talented cast.

Jennifer Ouellette

Yellowstone (Paramount+)

Credit: Paramount+

Series creator Taylor Sheridan first pitched this neo-Western drama as “The Godfather in Montana”; one might also think of it as Succession on a ranch. It follows the members of the Dutton family, led by patriarch John Dutton III (Kevin Costner), as they struggle to preserve their massive Montana cattle ranch: the titular Yellowstone. One source of tension is that the ranch shares borders with the Broken Rock Indian Reservation. But the biggest threats come from billionaire corporate land developers and scheming local government officials, eager to get their greedy hands on all that gorgeous acreage to build casinos, resort hotels, golf courses, and the like.

Yellowstone is basically a nighttime soap and a particularly good one, thanks to strong, complex characters and their interrelationships/intense personal conflicts. The Duttons are not good people, but nor are they entirely evil, despite doing many evil deeds—often for a good cause but not always. (The body count at the “train station” alone would get them multiple life sentences.) Seasons 2–4 represent the series at its peak. Alas, Costner left after the first part of S5; the second half unceremoniously kills off his character at the start of the first episode, with the remaining season dealing with the messy aftermath of what turns out to be an assassination.

I’ll be frank: Without Costner as an anchor, the second part of S5 just wasn’t as strong as prior seasons or even the first half of S5. There are several plot holes, extra scenes clearly included just to boost Sheridan’s ego, and the dialogue has become overly preachy and didactic—almost as annoying as Aaron Sorkin’s mini-sermons in later seasons of The West Wing, which is saying something.

Still, the show gave us one heck of a full-blown revenge fantasy finale. Yellowstone makes this year’s list because the series as a whole—and its supremely talented cast—deserves a fitting farewell for the top-notch entertainment it’s provided since 2018. Sure, there are spinoffs, including one in development featuring fan favorites Beth Dutton (Kelly Reilly) and Rip Wheeler (Cole Hauser). But there will never be anything quite like the OG.

Jennifer Ouellette

Interview with the Vampire S2 (AMC)

Credit: AMC

Anne Rice’s bestselling 1976 gothic horror novel gets a fresh adaptation for television that is markedly different in many ways from the 1994 film adaptation. The main character, Louis (Jacob Anderson), is reimagined as a mixed-race Creole pimp in New Orleans’ red light district rather than a white plantation owner. And child vampire Claudia (Delainey Haines in S2) is now 14 instead of a 5-year-old. The first season covered the novel’s first half, in which Louis shares, in flashbacks, what happened between him and the enigmatic vampire Lestat (Sam Reid) with journalist Daniel Molloy (Eric Bogosian).

That proved to be a toxic relationship that ended badly, with Louis and Claudia nearly killing Lestat and running away to Europe. In S2, they join up with a vampire coven in Paris led by the vampire Armand (Assad Zaman), hoping they have found a stable home. But it turns out the coven’s founder was none other than Lestat, putting that newfound family at risk. It’s hard to go wrong with Rice’s captivating storyline and unforgettable characters, especially with such strong performances from the main cast and evocative settings, bringing the written page to vivid life.

—Jennifer Ouellette

Bodkin (Netflix)

Credit: Netflix

This British satirical dark comedy features an American podcaster named Gilbert (Will Forte), who travels to a small Irish coastal town called Bodkin to record an investigative podcast about the disappearance of three people decades earlier during a Samhain festival. He’s aided by his assistant, aspiring journalist Emmy (Robyn Cara), and by a veteran Irish investigative journalist, Dove (Siobhan Cullen), on assignment in exile from London after a story falls apart when her whistleblower source unexpectedly dies.

Naturally the locals are not thrilled about podcasters digging up the past, but over seven episodes, Gilbert and his team not only solve the cold case, they heal a few long-standing emotional wounds in the process. The humor is more sly and subtle than, say, Only Murders in the Building, but Bodkin is nonetheless a quirky gem of a series, with a colorful setting filled with likable, eccentric characters. It’s worth a watch.

Jennifer Ouellette

My Lady Jane (Prime Video)

Credit: Prime Video

The tragic fate of Lady Jane Grey, aka the Nine Days’ Queen, is well-known to aficionados of English history. Named as Edward VI’s successor, she was named queen while still a teenager but quickly deposed in favor of Edward’s Catholic half-sister Mary; Jane was eventually executed. The historical fantasy series My Lady Jane offers an alternative scenario where Jane (Emily Bader) avoids that fate with the help of her eventual husband, Lord Guilford Dudley (Edward Bluemel), and humans who can take animal form known as Ethians. Ordinary humans are known as Verity, and the two sects are explicitly forbidden from mixing.

There is no sense in which My Lady Jane is intended as an accurate historical portrayal of 16th century England; the deliberate anachronisms alone are a testament to that, not to mention the constant presence of magic. Instead, showrunner Gemma Burgess has put together an irreverent engaging romp rife with witty banter, political intrigue, and a bit of derring-do—not to mention a killer soundtrack. Sadly, Amazon canceled the series after one season, much to the dismay of fans, including George R.R. Martin. So we won’t find out if Jane eventually figures out how to reclaim her throne from the scheming Mary.

Jennifer Ouellette

Renegade Nell (Disney+)

Credit: Disney+

Award-winning British TV writer Sally Wainwright is best known for the dramatic series Happy Valley (2014–2023) and Gentleman Jack (2019–2022), the latter produced jointly by BBC and HBO. Wainwright partnered with Disney+ for her latest series, the resolutely PG-13 Renegade Nell, which is a different beast altogether: a good old-fashioned, swashbuckling comic adventure with a supernatural twist, featuring a sassy cross-dressing heroine forced to turn to highway robbery to survive.

Set in 1705 during the reign of Queen Anne, the series stars Louisa Harland (Derry Girls) as Nell Jackson, widowed and possessed of occasional supernatural skills whenever someone threatens her, courtesy of a fairy sprite named Billy Blind (Nick Mohammed). Nell runs afoul of the louche, drunken offspring of the town’s landlord, things escalate, and Nell finds herself on the run and framed for murder, along with her two sisters, Roxy (Bo Bragason) and George (Florence Keen), and the Blanchefords’ former groomsman, Rasselas (Enyi Okoronkwo). The group gets further assistance from a charming aristocratic dandy/secret highwayman named Charles Devereaux (Frank Dillane).

The writing, pacing, and production values are top-notch, and the cast is terrific across the board. Renegade Nell keeps the action flowing and wisely never takes itself too seriously. Sure, there is injustice, class warfare, and strong intelligent women chafing within the strict confines of traditional binary gender roles. But Wainwright never lets the story get bogged down in heavy-handed symbolism or didacticism. Sadly, Disney+ canceled the series, but this one season stands just fine on its own.

Jennifer Ouellette

The Decameron (Netflix)

Credit: Netflix

Let’s get one thing straight: Netflix’s The Decameron has almost nothing to do with Boccaccio’s 14th century collection of stories, apart from the title and being set in the middle of the Black Plague in Florence. The main characters retreat to a secluded villa as bodies mount in the city, but they don’t sit around telling stories. They become the stories: mistaken identity, forbidden desires, illicit trysts, arranged marriages, and maybe even true love all factor into the plot, such that it is. And, of course, they must fend off others also fleeing the plague, including a ruthless band of mercenaries intent on taking over their villa.

Series creator Kathleen Jordan has put together a terrific cast with impeccable comic timing, well up to the task of playing into some pretty dark humor—death by Black Plague isn’t pretty, yet somehow you’ll find yourself chuckling about it. The Decameron is original, smartly silly, and quite unapologetically bawdy, making it a refreshing addition to the TV comedy landscape.

Jennifer Ouellette

Get Millie Black (HBO)

Credit: HBO

In the mood for an edgy British crime series? HBO has you covered with Get Millie Black, starring Tamara Lawrance as a Jamaican-born detective who gets kicked out of Scotland Yard and finds herself back home, working a missing persons case with the Jamaican Police Force. That brings her and partner Curtis (Gershwyn Eustache) into conflict with the wealthy and powerful ruling family of Kingston, with a possible connection to the London case that led to Millie’s ouster from the Yard.

She’s also dealing with her estranged transgender sister, Hibiscus (Chyna McQueen), who insists on living in a slum area called the Gully, and trying to navigate her love life. Get Millie Black is a good, meaty procedural with a compelling lead, but what really makes the series is the authentic Jamaican setting, and the way the viewer is effortlessly immersed in the local dynamics and cultural/political tensions of Kingston—right down to the dialect (HBO has helpfully provided subtitles, which do come in handy at times).

Jennifer Ouellette

Cursed Gold (National Geographic/Disney+)

Credit: Recovery Limited Partnership Liquidating Trust

Many people dream of finding lost or hidden treasure, but sometimes realizing that dream turns out to be a nightmare. Such was the case for Tommy Thompson, an American treasure hunter who famously beat the odds to discover the location of the SS Central America shipwreck (aka the “ship of gold”) in 1988. Thompson and his team recovered significant amounts of gold and artifacts to great fanfare, but the euphoria proved short-lived. His many travails make the perfect fodder for National Geographic’s riveting three-part documentary about Thompson’s spectacular rise and precipitous fall: Cursed Gold: A Shipwreck Scandal, based on a 1998 book by Gary Kinder.

Director Sam Bedstead read Kinder’s book and wanted to tell his own version of Thompson’s story, including everything that happened after the book was published. A lot happened, including Thompson panicking and going on the run in 2012, stashing some $4 million in offshore accounts. (Thompson is currently in prison for contempt of court.) Bedstead combed through over 700 pages of court transcripts and more than 600 hours of archival footage from the original salvage expedition to make Cursed Gold, as well as conducting follow-up interviews with many of the relevant parties. The end result is a documentary that plays like a thriller, with Thompson as the semi-tragic figure at the center.

Jennifer Ouellette

Moonflower Murders (PBS)

Credit: PBS

This is the follow-up to 2023’s delightful Magpie Murders, in which literary editor Susan Ryland (Lesley Manville) solved the murder of her bestselling author Alan Conway (Conleth Hill) and located the missing final chapter of Conway’s last manuscript—which just happened to be crucial to identifying the killer. She was helped along the way by recurring imaginary conversations with Conway’s star detective Atticus Pund (Timothy McMullan), playing out Conway’s final fictional mystery alongside Susan’s real investigation.

It was clever gimmick that made for a delightful series, and Moonflower Murders gives us more of the same story-within-a-story framework. Susan is now semi-retired and living in Crete with fiancé Andreas (Alexandros Logothetis) as they struggle to revive the fortunes of the hotel Andreas purchased. She is approached by a hotelier couple whose daughter Cecily has gone missing.  Cecily called them after reading one of Conway’s Atticus Pund novels and said the wrong man had been jailed for a murder that took place at the couple’s hotel eight years earlier.

The solution is hidden somewhere in the novel, because Conway had a habit of using thinly veiled people and events from real life. Susan must track down what happened to Cecily with Imaginary Atticus by her side once again, offering helpful insights. And maybe she’ll figure out what really happened with the hotel murder and exonerate an innocent man. Moonflower Murders is the perfect comfort watch for a long, lazy weekend.

Jennifer Ouellette

Agatha All Along (Disney+)

Credit: Disney+

The MCU’s foray into streaming television has produced mixed results, but one of my favorites is the weirdly inventive, oh-so-meta WandaVision. I’m happy to report that the spinoff sequel, Agatha All Along, taps into that same offbeat creativity, giving us a welcome reminder of just how good the MCU can be when it’s firing on all storytelling cylinders.

We find Agatha Harkness (Katherine Hahn) still under Wanda Maximoff’s original spell as a nosy neighbor in a small town. A mysterious young Teen (Joe Locke) breaks the hex and asks her to show him the way to the legendary Witches’ Road, a journey involving a series of trials. The reward: any surviving witches get what they most desire. Agatha wants her powers back—and Teen, well, his motives are murkier, as is his identity. Rounding out the coven are Lilia (Patti LuPone), a divination witch; Jennifer (Sasheer Zamata), a potions witch; Alice (Ali Ahn), a protection witch; and Sharon Davis (Debra Jo Rupp, reprising her WandaVision role) standing in for a green witch on account of her gardening skills. Agatha is also being pursued by her ex, Rio Vidal (Aubrey Plaza), a powerful green witch, as well as the Salem Seven, vengeful wraiths of Agatha’s first coven.

A large part of WandaVision‘s delight came from the various sitcom styles featured in each episode. Agatha All Along has its own take on that approach: Each trial takes on the setting and style of witches from popular culture (even the ending credits play on this). And the seventh episode, “Death’s Hand in Mine,” focusing on Lilia and a deadly tarot reading, might just be the best single episode of all the Marvel TV series to date. In my review, I questioned one creative choice in the series finale, which didn’t quite work for me.  On the whole, though, Agatha All Along is marvelously entertaining, binge-able fun with just enough emotional resonance and heartbreak to give it a bit of depth.

Jennifer Ouellette

Hysteria (Peacock)

Credit: Peacock

Hysteria is a show about a small US town in the’ 80s that descends into paranoia, fear, and a hive-mind-like frenzy after a high school boy goes missing in the ’80s. I came to the show for Bruce Campbell, hoping for another tale of horror with a dark comedy twist à la Evil Dead. But I ended up staying for a standout, memorable cast and a fascinating dive into how hive minds form amid uncertainty and danger.

Things get more interesting when a trio of outcast teens pretend to be Satanists to get people interested in their rock band. The falsehood simultaneously makes the children more popular in their school and pariahs in their town, as people suspect that they had something to do with the missing boy. Strong acting and personable deliveries from all three actors (Emjay Anthony as Dylan, Kezii Curtis as Spud, and, especially, Chiara Aurelia as Jordy) kept me pressing play as the teens toed the blurring line between their lie and their reality.

Their classmates, who Dylan desperately wants to impress, are also captivating. At times, you may actually find yourself rooting for the popular girl or jock, who turn out to have darker inclinations and more layers than their typical stereotypes. In fact, no character, including Dylan’s parents (Julie Bowen from Modern Family and voice actor and Port Charles star Nolan North) and Christian mother Tracy (Anna Camp, True Blood), are what they seem.

While maintaining a quirky and mysterious air, the show yields questions like, is a cult real if its creators are pretending but its followers aren’t? What can leave adults vulnerable to that special flavor of panic that makes them question their own families, faith leaders, and even the genre of rock and roll? And how easy is it for people to fall victim to mass hysteria when confronted with real-life peril, confusing phenomena, and a relatable desire to be part of something, which doesn’t go away after high school?

Toss in some classic rock and roll and appearances from an extraordinary entity, and you have a one-of-a-kind comedy horror that doesn’t go where you expect but brings you on a hell of a ride that’ll make you wonder if you, too, might have been part of the hysteria.

And yes, Campbell does deliver.

Scharon Harding

Rivals (Hulu)

Credit: Hulu

This is an adaptation of a 1988 Jilly Cooper novel of the same name. It’s a contemporary spin, although the series is still set in 1980s England in the Cotswolds region, which makes for a super fun soundtrack packed with ’80s nostalgia. The central rivals are Tony, Lord Baddingham (David Tennant), a nouveau riche managing director of a TV station who married into nobility, and Rupert Campbell-Black (Alex Hassell), a retired Olympics show jumper and incorrigible womanizer who represents aristocratic class and old money. But there’s plenty of scheming and cattiness and class warfare to go around among the rest of the colorful ensemble cast.

It’s nice to see Tennant sink his teeth into such a villainous role, and he’s well-matched against Hassell, who is the perfect charming louche with just enough lingering shreds of humanity to occasionally do something decent. Rivals is a briskly paced and positively addictive British romp with plenty of scandalous twists, lusty ribald humor, and more serious notes of genuine pain lurking beneath the frothy surface. You end up really caring about the characters, even the more dastardly ones—a tribute to the stellar cast and writing.

Jennifer Ouellette

Monsieur Spade (AMC)

Credit: AMC

Along with Raymond Chandler, Dashiell Hammet‘s legendary private detective Sam Spade pretty much defined noir crime fiction in the 1930s. But what happens when the hard-boiled detective gets old and longs for a peaceful retirement? That’s the premise behind Monsieur Spade, starring Clive Owen as a middle-aged Spade who has left his past behind for a peaceful life in the small French town of Bozouls in the 1960s.

Spade is mourning the loss of his wife, Gabrielle (Chiara Mastroianni), who thoughtfully left him her estate so he could continue his life of leisure. That quiet existence is shattered by the brutal murder of six beloved nuns in the nearby convent. They had been caring for Spade’s rebellious teenage ward, Teresa (Cara Bossom), whose life may now be in danger due to the shenanigans of her criminal biological father. Spade must find the fortitude for one last case, digging up secrets many in the town would prefer to stay buried, and face off against an old adversary. Owen makes a terrific older Spade, all craggy features and rasping voice. It’s a good, twisty thriller with great characters and a satisfying conclusion, very much in the spirit of the original.

Jennifer Ouellette

Slow Horses S4 (Apple TV+)

Credit: Apple TV+

Four seasons in and counting, there is still no better spy thriller on TV these than this always riveting British spy thriller, based on the “Slough House” series of novels by Mick Herron, and it just keeps getting better. Slough House is basically a dead-end administrative purgatory for MI5 agents who screw up or otherwise fall short of expectations, mockingly derided as the “slow horses” of the title. Slough House is headed by the slovenly, flatulent, and frequently intoxicated Jackson Lamb (Gary Oldman), who routinely heaps verbal abuse on his staff but is nonetheless a brilliant spymaster in his own smelly way.

S4 kicks off with a suicide bomber striking a London shopping mall, whose name turns out to be that of an MI5 “cold body” (fake identity). There is also an assassination attempt against retired senior MI5 officer David Cartwright (Jonathan Pryce), grandfather to slow horse River Cartwright (Jack Lowden), and the two events might just be connected. Slow Horses has already been renewed for more seasons and why not? It’s just as taut, thrilling, sardonically humorous, and occasionally heartbreaking as ever, with no sign of flagging.

Jennifer Ouellette

Light Shop (Hulu)

Credit: Hulu

I’m not sure I’ve ever seen anything quite like Light Shop, an eerily haunting Korean horror mystery adapted from a popular webtoon by Kang Full. Ju Ji-Hoon stars as Jung Won-Young, the enigmatic owner of the titular light shop, located at the end of a foreboding dark alley. Various strangers are drawn to the light shop, perhaps because it’s not just a place to purchase bulbs; it’s also a nexus connecting the worlds of the living and the dead. Won-Young is able to discern which is which—and which of the lost souls that wander into his shop might just be trapped between the two worlds.

There’s the young man on a bus who keeps seeing the same mysterious woman sitting on the bench at his stop, until he finally invites her home and quickly realizes she’s not what she seems. There’s a screenwriter who moves into a new house and discovers that it might be haunted; a young schoolgirl who comes by the shop every day for her mother and yet never seems to buy any bulbs; a middle-aged man who wanders aimlessly through the alley weeping while soaking wet; and a sad silent woman in red high heels who morphs into an elongated shambling zombie-like figure in the dark.

Fair warning: The first few episodes can be disorienting because it’s so challenging to figure out what’s going on. But the disparate threads of all the individual stories start to come together by the end of the fourth episode as we learn how the seemingly random strangers are connected, and the rest of the series brings it all home in a powerful finale that is equal parts horrifying and bittersweet. I don’t know if Kang Full has more stories to tell—I can see Light Shop working as an anthology series—but these eight episodes stand on their own as some truly innovative storytelling.

Jennifer Ouellette

Bad Monkey (Apple TV+)

Credit: Apple TV+

Based on Carl Hiaasen’s 2013 novel of the same name, Bad Monkey is the perfect vehicle for Vince Vaughn’s roguish motor-mouth charm. He plays Andrew Yancy, a demoted detective who now does restaurant inspections, until his friend (another detective) tells him about a severed arm recovered by a tourist in the waters of South Florida. So begins a wild caper involving insurance fraud, real estate developers, multiple murders, at least one faked death, and a bit of spooky Obeah voodoo for good measure, courtesy of the Dragon Queen (Jodie Turner-Smith).

In other words, it’s pretty much vintage Hiaasen and Bad Monkey is a particularly good adaptation. The characters and casting are perfection, especially Meredith Harper as Eve Stripling, who seems like your average shallow, manipulative, gold-digging beauty—until you realize jut how ruthless she’s prepared to be to get what she wants. Props also to Zach Braff as Izzy, who gets caught up in the fraud scheme and pays a heavy price, as well as Scott Glenn as Yancy’s father, dishing laconic wisdom while fishing on a dock to anyone who cares to listen.

Jennifer Ouellette

A Man on the Inside (Netflix)

Credit: Netflix

For those who miss Ted Danson’s endearing portrayal of Michael, the human-loving demon in The Good Place, we now have A Man on the Inside, created by Michael Schur (who also created The Good Place). Danson plays Charles Nieuwendyk, a very Michael-like recently widowed retired engineering professor who gets hired by a private detective to go undercover at a San Francisco retirement community. A ruby necklace has gone missing, and it’s Charles’s job to snoop around and ferret out the culprit.

Once again, Schur has assembled a stellar cast of diverse characters, with crisp, whip-smart writing. The show is alternatively funny, sweet, sour, and touching, while never lapsing into schmaltz—although we’ll risk a bit of schmaltz to observe that the real meaning is not the mystery of the ruby necklace but the relationships and personal growth that occur along the way. At its heart, the show is about coming to terms with the grief and loneliness that so often comes with aging. Netflix just renewed A Man on the Inside for a second season, so we’ll get to see what Charles gets up to on his next undercover assignment.

Jennifer Ouellette

Fallout (Prime Video)

Credit: Prime Video

Amazon has had a rocky history with big, geeky properties making their way onto Prime Video. The Wheel of Time wasn’t for everyone, and I have almost nothing good to say about The Lord of the Rings: The Rings of Power. Fallout broke that bad streak; as a video game adaptation, it’s right up there with The Last of Us. A specific cocktail of tongue-in-cheek humor, sci-fi campiness, strong themes, great characters, and visceral violence came together into a fantastic show.

Fallout‘s violence can be sudden, brutal, and casual. Heads explode from shotgun blasts like popped bubbles in Cronenbergian splatters. Someone’s face gets ripped right off, and another person gets a fork plunged into their eyeball. Homages to the Bethesda games’ slow-motion kills are aplenty, with gratuitous shots of bullets tearing through bodies and painting the walls red. It’s so over the top that it didn’t bother me; it’s cartoon violence, ultimately, though a couple of instances of dog-related violence didn’t feel too great. Of course, the games were like this, too. It just hits a little differently when it’s live action.

The Fallout games are hilarious—goofy, even, and that tracks right into the show. It’s not always as laugh-out-loud funny as I expected (though it sometimes is), but it’s definitely fun, and there are some strong jokes. Even the violence is hilarious if you have the stomach for it. You don’t have to have played the games to appreciate the action or comedy in Fallout, but there’s obviously a whole additional layer here for people who’ve been playing the games for years. Almost every shot includes something for fans of the games to recognize, from Nuka-Cola bottles to Assaultron robot frames to Vault Boy bobbleheads.

I love the fact that this show focuses on three different characters in equal measure, each of them embodying a type of character a player of Fallout might create. Lucy is the do-gooder vault dweller, Maximus is the aspirant warrior, and The Ghoul is the wasteland rogue. Through those characters, the show captures the full range of the Fallout experience. What we see happen in the plot seems to naturally come from the characters’ personalities, values, words, and actions.

On their own, all those elements made for entertaining viewing, but there has always been more to Fallout: It has a point of view and strong themes in its satirical take on American culture. The TV series does those themes justice. But don’t for a second think that Fallout‘s point of view relates to self-righteous moralizing. By the end of the season, you have at least one big reason to hate every faction, all of which are deeply flawed in their visions of what the world order should look like or how to achieve it.

Samuel Axon

And now, for our top TV pick of 2024:

Shogun (FX/Hulu)

Credit: FX/Hulu

This sumptuous series is adapted from James Clavell’s hugely influential 1975 epic novel of the same name. It’s a fictionalized account of the key players and events in 17th century feudal Japan that ultimately led to the naming of a new shōgun (central ruler), Tokugawa Ieyasu, and the advent of the Edo period.  Clavell’s novel also includes a fictionalized version of an English navigator named William Adams, aka Miura Anjiin (“the pilot of Miura”), who was the first of his nation to reach Japan in 1600, eventually becoming a samurai and one of Tokugawa’s key advisers.

Cosmo Jarvis (Peaky Blinders, Raised by Wolves) stars as John Blackthorne (based on Adams) while Hiroyuki Sanada plays Toranaga (based on Tokugawa). Blackthorne finds himself embroiled in this hotbed of political intrigue when Toranaga takes a shine to him, envisioning a key role for the English pilot in Toranaga’s own secret machinations. Caught between them is the alluring translator, Toda Mariko (Anna Sawai), who finds herself torn between her loyalty to Toranaga and her Catholic faith—not to mention a growing attraction to the foreign Anjin.

The storytelling, the characters, the stellar performances, the expert pacing all contribute to the show’s success. But it’s also a visually stunning achievement that brings 17th century feudal Japan to vivid life, thanks to masterful visual effects that have been woven in so seamlessly, it can be challenging to distinguish between the CGI and the real footage. It’s been described as “a Game of Thrones set in 17th century Japan,” although calling it a 17th century Japanese Godfather also captures the essence of the series. Two more seasons are in development, and we’ll be watching. But it was Clavell’s timeless story and characters that make Shōgun what it is; the showrunners have a massive challenge ahead to meet that highest of bars.

Jennifer Ouellette

Photo of Jennifer Ouellette

Jennifer is a senior reporter at Ars Technica with a particular focus on where science meets culture, covering everything from physics and related interdisciplinary topics to her favorite films and TV series. Jennifer lives in Baltimore with her spouse, physicist Sean M. Carroll, and their two cats, Ariel and Caliban.

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Film Technica: Our favorite movies of 2024


lighting up the silver screen

This year’s list features quite a bit of horror mixed in with the usual blockbuster fare—plus smaller hidden gems.

Credit: Aurich Lawson | Getty Images

Editor’s note: Warning: Although we’ve done our best to avoid spoiling anything too major, please note this list does include a few specific references to several of the listed films that some might consider spoiler-y.

This was the year that Marvel Studios hit the pause button on its deluge of blockbuster superhero movies, after rather saturating the market in recent years. It proved to be a smart move: the only Marvel theatrical release was the R-rated Deadpool & Wolverine, a refreshingly irreverent, very meta take on the genre that delighted audiences and lit up the global box office. Perhaps audiences aren’t so much bored with superhero movies as becoming more discriminating in their choices. Give us a fun, fresh take and we’ll flock back to theaters.

Fewer superhero franchise entries meant there was more breathing room for other fare. Horror in particular had a stellar year, with numerous noteworthy offerings, touching on body horror (The Substance), Satanic Panic (Late Night with the Devil), psychological horror (Heretic), hauntings (The Oddity), a rom-com/revenge mashup (Your Monster), an inventive reimagining of a classic silent film (Nosferatu), and one very bloodthirsty child vampire with a wicked sense of humor (Abigail). Throw in a smattering of especially strong sequels (Inside Out 2, Dune: Part 2), a solid prequel (Furiosa), and a few hidden gems, and we had one of the better years for film in recent memory.

As always, we’re opting for an unranked list, with the exception of our “year’s best” vote at the very end, so you might look over the variety of genres and options and possibly add surprises to your eventual watchlist. We invite you to head to the comments and add your favorite films released in 2024.

The Fall Guy

Credit: Universal Pictures

I love to mentally check out with a good movie when I fly. So, on a recent trip to New York City for Technicon, I settled into my narrow, definitely-not-my-couch airline seat and fell in love with The Fall Guy, a movie based on the TV show I remember watching as a teen back in the ’80s.

Directed by David Leitch (Deadpool 2, the John Wick franchise), The Fall Guy is pure entertainment—part rom-com, part action, funny as heck, and super meta. Leitch is perfectly suited to direct a film about a stuntman, having been one himself (he was Brad Pitt’s stunt-double five times). And the actors clearly are having a ton of fun roasting the industry, while also paying tribute to the invisible heroes of any movie: the stunt performers.

A year after a nearly fatal fall (yeah, pun apparently intended), stuntman Colt Seavers (Ryan Gosling) is persuaded by his former producer, Gail (Hannah Waddington), to come to the rescue for a film his ex-girlfriend, Jody (Emily Blunt), is directing after the lead actor and his stuntman disappear. Gail asks him to find them to save the film and Jody’s career. The exaggerated stunts, meta jokes (Tom Cruise, “I do my own stunts”), unicorn, callbacks to favorite films (Notting Hill etc.), and unflagging plot made for a quick flight for me. The chemistry between Blunt and Gosling makes the movie and provided an at-times hilarious-yet-believable romantic tension. (I’ll never forget the giant monster hand nor the air pistols.) And the cameo by the real fall guy left me elated.

A few years back, also on a flight, I remember watching Gosling’s comedy chops in The Nice Guys and laughing aloud several times (Always awkward. Sorry seat mates.). I did the same with The Fall Guy as well. But could my enthusiasm for the movie get anyone in my family to watch it with me on our giant COVID-purchase TV with the surround sound and subwoofer on high?? Not for a solid month. But once I did, they were sold.

Kerry Staurseth

Hit Man

Credit: Netflix

I grew up in Richard Linklater’s Texas, and there seems to be something—the characters, the story, the setting, or the aesthetic—that resonates with my personal experience in most of his films. I can’t say the same for Hit Man, but this isn’t meant to be a criticism. Instead, Linklater’s Hit Man offers nearly two hours of pure escapism that many of us need. It’s smart, with witty dialogue, more than a few moments of side-splitting humor, and a story that is too good to be true, although the premise is based on true events.

Gary, played by Glen Powell (who also co-wrote the screenplay with Linklater), is a chameleon. Gary starts the film as a meek, somewhat nerdy college professor, but circumstances quickly force him into the uncomfortable position of becoming an undercover police informant. As we learn early in the film, this involves portraying a fake hitman to rope suspects into contract killing schemes and then prosecution. While I may question the legality or ethics of this setup, it creates a canvas for Linklater and Powell to create funny, sympathetic characters thrust into situations that, while far-fetched, somehow seem believable.

Ultimately, Hit Man provides a laboratory for character development for the audience and within the film itself. In the film, Gary’s academic background helps him craft characters to match the circumstances and attitudes of each of his targets. Gary’s hitman personas can turn up the charm, abrasiveness, or faux bravado as the situation requires it. Gary reinvents himself at every turn, showcasing Powell’s acting range. That is, until Gary runs into Madison, portrayed by Adria Arjona. Then, things become a little too real for Gary, and you’ll have to watch the film to see what happens next.

Stephen Clark

Heretic

Credit: A24

Hugh Grant launched his career playing charmingly self-effacing rom-com heroes (cf. Four Weddings and a Funeral, Notting Hill). But in recent years, he’s embraced his darker side, playing roguish villains in films like The Gentlemen and Dungeons & Dragons: Honor Among Thieves, as well as for the BBC miniseries A Very English Scandal. Heretic gives him his most disturbing role yet.

Grant plays Mr. Reed, a reclusive man who invites the Mormon missionaries who come knocking on his door inside for some of his wife’s blueberry pie. But Sister Barnes (Sophie Thatcher) and Sister Paxton (Chloe East) soon realize there is no Mrs. Reed, that delicious blueberry smell is from a candle, they have no cell phone signal, and they are locked inside with a lunatic. They must figure out how to escape from the basement dungeon in which Reed traps them, a torturous environment in which to test their faith.

Heretic has its share of blood and violence, but the focus is more on the psychological trauma inflicted on the young women. And its treatment of the Mormon faith is surprisingly nuanced for the horror genre. Still, it’s Grant’s subtly sinister performance that really makes the film: He brings just a hint of his trademark rom-com charm to the role, which somehow makes everything he says and does doubly chilling.

Jennifer Ouellette

Tuesday

Credit: A24

This quietly devastating indie fantasy drama stars Julia Louis-Dreyfus as Zora, a mother whose 15-year-old daughter Tuesday (Lola Petticrew) is confined to a wheelchair with an incurable terminal disease. The fantastical element is Death, who comes to release Tuesday from her suffering in the form of a talking macaw that can alter its size at will. But Zora isn’t ready to let her daughter go; she swallows Death to keep her daughter alive—with the added complication that now nobody can die.

At its heart, Tuesday is an unsettling fable about human mortality and learning not just to confront, but to embrace, Death. That’s a pretty heavy theme, and the film offers no pat, easy answers in its resolution. But first-time director DainaO.Pusić brings a light touch to the melancholy, bolstered by Louis-Dreyfus’ courageous performance.

Jennifer Ouellette

The Substance

Credit: Mubi

Listen, I’m not here to convince you that The Substance changed my life, but it’s been a while since a modern sci-fi/horror movie fixated on the fear of death and aging made my skin crawl, so like many viewers in 2024, I was itching to press play. Demi Moore stars as Elizabeth Sparkle, a 50-year-old fitness icon who foolishly injects an experimental drug to maintain her celebrity and quickly regrets birthing a younger double (played by Margaret Qualley), whom she now must split her life with.

Between firm butts flexing and gory mutations emerging, Moore’s and Qualley’s characters clash, forgetting they are “the one” and spiraling toward doom. And while most body horror movies are viewed as gratuitous, The Substance lives up to its title. Somehow, through a nauseating cascade of increasingly grotesque distortions of the human form, the movie morphs into a meaningful satire on society’s stance that older women are irrelevant—blowing a kiss into the camera at the genre’s past tendency to objectify female characters.

Ashley Belanger

Rez Ball

Credit: Netflix

This is a classic feel-good sports movie that manages to seem both familiar and fresh, thanks to its setting on a Navajo reservation. (It’s based on the nonfiction novel Canyon Dreams by Michael Powell.) Rez Ball follows one season of the Chuska Warriors, a Native American high school basketball team competing for the state championship. Their star player is Nataanii (Kusem Goodwind), whose mother and sister were killed by a drunk driver the prior year. Nataanii has been struggling with his grief ever since, and when he doesn’t show up for practice one day, the team learns he committed suicide.

It’s up to coach Heather (Jessica Matten), a former WNBA player, to help her team recover from the shocking loss and regroup to finish the season. She names Nataanii’s best friend, Jimmy (Kauchani Bratt), as team captain and employs some novel team-building exercises—most notably a shepherding task in which the team must work together to bring sheep down from a mountain and back into their enclosure. Then there’s her clever strategy of training the team to call all their plays in their native language—shades of the World War II “code talkers.” (There’s even a sly humorous reference to the 2002 Nicolas Cage movie Windtalkers in between all the frybread jokes.)

Director Sydney Freeland hits all the familiar notes of this genre and ably captures the basketball sequences—is there really any doubt we’ll have a happy(ish) ending? Yet the film earns its payoff, driven not by genuine suspense, but by the sheer determination of the team members and how they bond to overcome their grief and bring some joy out of their shared tragedy.

Jennifer Ouellette

Oddity

Credit: Shudder

Oddity is a pitch-perfect supernatural thriller that never should have worked. Writer-director Damian McCarthy has explained that the movie comprised “a mix of a lot of old ideas” that he “could never find a home for.” That hodgepodge storytelling approach could have been a forced recipe for disaster if McCarthy wasn’t such an undeniable master of tension. Telling the story of a psychic medium-antiques dealer desperate to divine the events leading to her twin sister’s shocking murder in an abandoned Irish manor, the movie managed to feel fast-paced while drawing out an unrelenting sense of dread.

The bulk of that tension comes from a haunted wooden man that remains onscreen and barely ever moves—leaving the audience painfully stuck anticipating the moment when the nightmarish figure will spring to life. With slasher movie elements and twists as jarring as the wooden man’s startling features, Oddity had some horror fans within minutes smashing pause to recover from the brutal opening scene before returning to finish McCarthy’s curious haunted house tour de force.

Ashley Belanger

Abigail

Credit: Universal Pictures

Six criminals get more than they bargained for when they are hired to kidnap the young daughter of a wealthy underworld kingpin: budding ballerina Abigail (Alisha Weir). Joey (Melissa Barrera) is the only member to be kind to their captive, clearly bothered by the fact that their target is a child. Abigail responds to that kindness with an ominous sweetness: “I’m sorry about what’s going to happen to you.”

So begins one of the goriest and funniest vampire rampages to find its way to the big screen, as the Undead Abigail takes brutal revenge on each of her kidnappers in turn. The carnage is truly next-level, including one infamous scene in which Joey wades through a literal pool of bloody, rotting dead bodies—all victims of Abigail’s ferocious killer instincts. There are some insane plot twists, plenty of perfectly timed humorous moments, and terrific performances from the ensemble cast, especially Weir. If horror comedies are your jam, Abigail is an excellent addition to the genre.

Jennifer Ouellette

Furiosa: A Mad Max Saga 

Credit: Universal Pictures

A nine-year wait between franchise films is, more often than not, an indication that the follow-up can’t meet some lofty expectations of what came before it. But that’s not the case for Furiosa.

Although it’s not the same white-knuckle thrill ride as 2015’s Fury Road, Furiosa gives us another mostly mute protagonist in an expertly crafted action film that overlaps as a revenge flick. While Anya Taylor-Joy delivers a cold, steely interpretation of the eponymous protagonist, it’s the object of her revenge, Chris Hemsworth’s villain Dementus, that offers a new variation to the typically bleak wasteland: levity.

Hemsworth relishes his chance here to show another side of his acting chops, and the result is one of the funniest and zaniest villainous performances in recent memory. Dementus’ malice is matched by his penchant for delivering self-aggrandizing speeches, which are a nice reminder that, even as the world fell, not everyone lost their sense of humor.

Jacob May

I Saw the TV Glow

Credit: A24

As anyone who’s spent years rewatching a beloved sci-fi/fantasy show could likely glean from its ethereal title, I Saw the TV Glow was made to immerse viewers in the sort of complex mythology that keeps the most engaged superfans glued to the screen. Surreally blurring the lines between TV fiction and reality, the A24 film follows an alienated teen boy who deeply bonds with an older female classmate over a monster-of-the-week TV show that comes on past his bedtime.

What starts at a sleepover evolves into an existential nightmare suggesting that the boy’s truth might be a fiction constructed by the “Big Bad” villain from his favorite TV show. This absurd possibility follows the boy as he grows into a man with his own family, all while continuing to take comfort in his all-time favorite TV show. The mesmerizing conclusion injected a disturbing sense of wonder into 2024, leaving some viewers as slack-faced as the boy was when he finally got to watch the late-night TV show that he somehow knew would light him up inside.

Ashley Belanger

Thelma

Credit: Magnolia Pictures

Elderly people are so often invisible in our youth-oriented society, so it’s nice to see two 90-something characters take center stage in this charming comedy-drama written and directed by Josh Margolin. June Squibb plays the titular Thelma, who gets taken in by a phone scammer pretending to be her grandson Danny (Fred Hechinger) to the tune of $10,000. The police won’t help, but Thelma has a P.O. box address as a clue and sets out to get her money back.

Thelma enlists the help of her estranged friend Ben (Richard Roundtree, in his final role), who is eager to escape his assisted living facility for one last adventure, and the two set off on Ben’s two-person scooter. Wacky hijinks and personal growth and enlightenment ensue. The film was inspired by a conversation Margolin had with his own now-deceased grandmother, and that personal experience is the key to Thelma‘s warmth, humor, and authenticity. It’s a lovely twist on the classic road movie and well worth a watch.

Jennifer Ouellette

Woman of the Hour

Credit: Netflix

In the late 1970s, serial killer Rodney Alcala interrupted his murder spree to make a 1978 appearance on The Dating Game and actually went out on a date with bachelorette Sheryl Bradshaw—who naturally had no idea the charming man who’d won her over with his answers was, in fact, a psychopath. It might seem like an odd bit of trivia on which to base a film, but Anna Kendrick came across Ian MacAllister McDonald’s initial screenplay as the actress was gearing up to make her directorial debut with Netflix and snatched it up.

Kendrick also stars as Sheryl, a struggling LA actress who is persuaded to go on The Dating Game by friends, and her typically winsome, spunky performance—and able direction— lifts Woman of the Hour to the next level. Perhaps the best part of the film is that it doesn’t linger overmuch on the killer or glorify his horrific deeds. The focus stays squarely on Sheryl and a woman in the audience named Laura (Nicolette Robinson), who recognizes Rodney (Daniel Zovatto) as the man last seen with her missing best friend. It’s a well-done, quietly thrilling period piece that bodes well for Kendrick’s future as a director.

Jennifer Ouellette

Your Monster

Credit: Vertical Entertainment

It’s been quite a year for Melissa Barrera, who followed up her standout Final Girl performance in Abigail with another star turn in the decidedly offbeat Your Monster—part romantic comedy, part horror/revenge fantasy, weaving in such disparate influences as the late ’80s TV series Beauty and the Beast and classic Broadway musicals like A Chorus Line. It’s based on a 2019 short film by writer/director Caroline Lindy, inspired by Lindy’s one-time boyfriend breaking up with her when she received a cancer diagnosis.

Barrera plays Laura, an actress who also loses her boyfriend after a cancer diagnosis—plus he reneges on his promise to let her audition for the musical she co-wrote—and goes back to her childhood home to recuperate. There she encounters the proverbial Monster in the closet (Tommy Dewey), who is none too pleased about suddenly having a “roommate” again. At first he tries to scare her, but soon they’re bonding over old movies and Chinese takeout; Monster might just be the ideal boyfriend she’s been looking for.

Of course, Monster is also very much a manifestation of Laura’s psyche, particularly her subsumed rage. Naturally they plot revenge on her selfish ex, and when it comes, it’s everything a jilted lover could want from the experience. Your Monster can’t quite decide on a tone, shifting constantly between comedy and horror, love and revenge. But that’s part of what makes this quirky film so appealing: Lindy isn’t afraid to take creative risks, and she makes it all work in the end.

Jennifer Ouellette

Will and Harper

Credit: Netflix

A few years ago, comic actor Will Ferrell was on-set filming a movie when he received a surprising text from Harper Steele, a close friend of some 30 years, dating back to their time together on Saturday Night Live. Steele informed him of her gender transition. Ferrell’s response was to organize a road trip for the two of them, starting in New York City, where they first met, hitting stops in Washington, DC, Indiana, Illinois, Oklahoma, and Amarillo, Texas—documenting the journey all along the way.

The result is Will and Harper, a surprisingly sweet, refreshingly frank, and thought-provoking film that celebrates an enduring friendship. There’s never a question of Ferrell not accepting his friend’s transition, but there are some awkward growing pains. The pair don’t shy away from more difficult conversations, peppered with humor, while downing cans of Pringles, and it’s that well-meaning honesty that keeps the film grounded and centered on their relationship, without falling into didactic preachiness.

Jennifer Ouellette

Wicked Little Letters

Credit: StudioCanal

Trolling didn’t begin with social media. Back in the 1920s, several residents of the seaside town of Littlehampton in England began receiving poison pen letters rife with obscenities and false rumors. It became known as the Littlehampton libels, with the culprit revealed to be a 30-year-old laundress named Edith Swan, who tried to pin the blame on her neighbor, Rose Gooding, until she was found out. (Poor Gooding actually served over a year of jail time before she was exonerated.)

Wicked Little Letters is the fictionalized account of those events, starring Olivia Coleman as Edith and Jessie Buckley as Rose, emphasizing the complicated relationships and psychological foibles of the central characters. Even if you know nothing about the case, we learn early on who the true culprit is, and the film then becomes a cat-and-mouse game as Rose’s allies try to prove Edith is the true poison pen. The true enjoyment is watching everything play out with equal parts humor and pathos.

Jennifer Ouellette

Nosferatu

Credit: Universal Pictures

Director Robert Eggers can be a polarizing figure for moviegoers. How much you enjoyed The Witch, The Northman, or 2019’s The Lighthouse (inspired by a real-life 1801 tragedy involving two Welsh lighthouse keepers trapped in a storm) likely depends on your taste for Eggers’ dark mythic sensibility and penchant for hallucinatory imagery. With Nosferatu—a daring reinvention of the seminal 1922 German silent film by F.W. Murnau, based in turn on Bram Stoker’s 1897 novel Dracula—Eggers leans fully into supernatural gothic horror, with spectacular, genuinely scary results.

It’s hard to go wrong with Bill Skarsgård in the lead role of the vampire Count Orlok; his portrayal of Pennywise the Clown in It is still giving people nightmares. Lily-Rose Depp and Nicholas Hoult also shine as Ellen (the unfortunate object of Orlok’s murderous pursuit, slowly driven mad as he closes in) and her hapless fiancé, Thomas, as does Willem Dafoe as the eccentric Professor von Franz. The basic outlines of Stoker’s plot remain, but Eggers has also infused his film with a visual language that evokes both Murnau’s distinctive German expressionism and the Eastern European folklore that inspired Stoker. This is not so much a remake as an innovative re-imagining by a director whose sensibility is perfectly suited to the task.

Jennifer Ouellette

Monkey Man

Credit: Universal Pictures

Dev Patel’s latest film completely missed me when it got a limited cinematic release this spring. Instead, I stumbled across it streaming on Peacock and went in cold with nothing more than good vibes toward the actor—and now director—based on his performances in films like Chappie. Which made the initial fight, with Patel wearing a monkey mask, a little confusing at first.

Monkey Man is a good old revenge film, following Patel’s character as he negotiates the underworld of the fictional Indian city of Yatana in a quest to avenge his mother, who was brutally murdered when their village was ethnically cleansed by Hindu nationalists. The fight scenes are frenetic and visceral, influenced by films like John Wick but also The Raid, and the hand-to-hand combat in Marvel’s Daredevil. But it’s also a film with a political message or two. Perhaps the best way to describe it is like a cross between John Wick and RRR—if you liked both of those films, you’ll probably love Monkey Man.

Jonathan Gitlin

The Three Musketeers Part 2: Milady

Credit: Pathe

Last year, The Three Musketeers Part 1: D’Artagnan made our annual list, in which we celebrated finally having a quintessential French adaptation of Alexandre Dumas’ classic 1844 novel to rival Richard Lester’s iconic two-part 1970s US adaptation. Part 2: Milady covers the events of the second half of the novel, as D’Artagnan (Francois Civil) and his compatriots rush to rescue his kidnapped lover, Constance (Lyna Khoudri), and prevent the assassination of the Duke of Buckingham (Jacob Fortune-Lloyd) by Eva Green’s deliciously wicked Milady de Winter.

Both films were shot back to back, so the same top-notch storytelling and able performances are present. And director Martin Bourboulon heard the complaints about how dark the first installment was in places and corrected the colorimetry. My only quibble: unlike Part 1, Part 2 actually deviates quite substantially from the source material, particularly with regard to the fates of Constance and Milady. In fact, the finale is left open-ended. Could a third installment be in the offing? (An adaptation of Dumas’ The Count of Monte Cristo is releasing soon by the same team.) Still, it’s a magnificent, hugely entertaining film that pairs beautifully with its predecessor.

Jennifer Ouellette

Late Night with the Devil

Credit: IFC Films

Framed as a documentary with behind-the-scenes found-footage elements, Late Night with the Devil tells the story of a late-night talk show, Night Owls with Jack Delroy, and its producers’ attempts to put on an unforgettable Halloween night show in 1977. Things start out in an appropriate-for-TV spooky tone, and the movie’s ’70s aesthetic really sells the vibe.

But as the show goes on, the guests get progressively weirder, the segments become more sinister, and it starts to be difficult to tell if the guests are putting on an act or if something darker is going on. Is the host really going to try to commune with the devil on a late-night variety hour? That quickly becomes the plan. I won’t spoil more than that, but I found the ride compelling from start to finish.

This was a good year for horror movies, and Late Night with the Devil was one of my favorites. David Dastmalchian’s performance as the host was a real standout. The whole package is great fun, and everything wraps up in a blessedly tight 95 minutes (man, movies are way too long these days). Genre fans shouldn’t miss this one.

Aaron Zimmerman

Wicked Part 1

Credit: Universal Pictures

I was lucky enough to see Wicked on Broadway near the end of Idina Menzel and Kristen Chenoweth’s iconic runs originating the characters of Elphaba and Glinda for the stage. Since then I’ve seen the live version of the musical five more times at various points and listened to the soundtrack hundreds of times more. Despite all that, the unavoidable marketing for this movie had me worried it was going to be an overproduced cinematic flop on the order of Cats or Dear Evan Hansen.

Happily, my worries were overblown. Cynthia Erivo and Ariana Grande bring real chemistry and pathos to the show’s main roles and have the pipes to pull off some extremely difficult songs without breaking a sweat. I was also impressed with the movie’s top-notch choreography, which evokes the golden age of silver screen musicals and demands to be seen in a theater with as big a screen as possible.

My only quibble with this adaptation is the pacing, which suffers thanks to a few unnecessary backstory additions and a few too many long, lingering shots and pregnant pauses that even mess up the flow of some iconic songs. Why they decided to shoot “Defying Gravity” like an action movie—and decided not to cut to the credits right after Erivo’s soaring final note—will always be a huge mystery to me. A version of this movie that was about 45 minutes shorter would have been perfect. The version we got was instead just a very good adaptation of a very good musical.

Kyle Orland

The Wild Robot

Credit: Universal Pictures

This is the final film to be animated entirely in-house at DreamWorks, based on the 2016 novel of the same name by Peter Brown. It features a plucky service robot called ROZZUM unit 7134, aka “Roz” (voiced by Lupita Nyong’o), who gets shipwrecked on a desert island and must learn to adapt. Along the way, Roz befriends some of the local wildlife—Pedro Pascal voices a mischievous red fox named Fink, with Bill Nighy voicing an elderly goose named Longneck—and adopts an orphaned goose named Brightbill (Kit Connor).

Director Chris Sanders was inspired both by classic Disney animated movies and Hayao Miyazaki, creating what he described as “a Monet painting in a Miyazaki forest” for the visual CGI style of The Wild Robot. It makes for quite a striking combination. Plot-wise, there are elements of E.T. and Pixar’s Wall-E here, but Sanders has created a unique take on those tropes and standout characters that are all his own. Along with Inside Out 2 (see below) this is one of the best animated movies of the year.

Jennifer Ouellette

Deadpool & Wolverine

Credit: Marvel Studios

The Deadpool & Wolverine movie was a long time coming. That’s not just because Deadpool (Ryan Reynolds) has been making comically obsessive requests to hang out with Hugh Jackman’s Wolverine since the first Deadpool. But the movie itself feels like an homage to the comic book movies before it, combining fan service with a true, sensible (for a comic book movie) plot and a satisfying conclusion that leaves the characters more mature and content than when we last saw them.

Some may be concerned about the return of Jackman, considering his version of Wolverine was supposed to come to a dramatic and spectacular conclusion with the 2017 movie Logan. In fact, the movie is about Deadpool’s universe crumbling (as related by the Time Variance Authority from the show Loki) due to that version of Wolverine no longer being around. But Deadpool & Wolverine handles this well by visiting the end location of Logan and establishing that Jackman is now playing a Wolverine from an alternate universe and is still highly capable of playing the fierce, acrobatic, and iconic X-Man.

Deep down, the movie is about two men who have typically felt alone and unworthy of the people they love finding new paths to manhood, self-respect, and acceptance of their roles in the world. But for comic book fans, it’s really about action-packed nostalgia. The good feels are bolstered by epic cameos of characters you might have forgotten were Marvel-related at all (if possible, I highly recommend seeing this movie spoiler-free).

Unexpectedly one of the best parts of the movie comes from the ending credits. It features behind-the-scenes footage from 12 X-Men movies going back 24 years. With clips featuring the likes of a young Jackman, Halle Berry (who has played Storm), and Patrick Stewart (who has played Professor X), it’s a reminder of a time when comic books felt new and bold and a tribute to how long all of us—from the actors, to the crew, to the audience—have been on this journey. Ultimately, Deadpool & Wolverine provides a fulfilling and happy goodbye to all those pieces.

Scharon Harding

Nickel Boys

Credit: Amazon MGM Studios

Colson Whitehead won the 2020 Pulitzer Prize for his 2019 novel The Nickel Boys, based on Florida’s infamous Arthur G. Dozier School for Boys, a relic of the Jim Crow era. The school’s staff inflicted all manner of abuse, beatings, rapes, and torture on its unfortunate charges and even murdered many of them; as of 2012, nearly 100 deaths had been documented, along with 55 burial sites on school grounds. (There could be as many as 27 more burial sites, based on ground-penetrating radar surveys.)

A young Black boy named Elwood (Ethan Cole Sharp) in 1962 is a promising student until he is mistakenly arrested for being an accomplice to car theft. He’s sent to the segregated Nickel Academy, where he makes friends with Turner (Brandon Wilson). (Daveed Diggs plays a grown Elwood, now a successful businessman in New York City.) The two witness and experience so much abuse that Elwood finally decides to fight back, despite the risk of retaliation by the school’s administrators.

This is powerful subject matter, deftly handled by director RaMell Ross, who manages to tell a compelling story without turning it into what’s become known as “Black trauma porn.” The most controversial aspect of the film is Ross’ choice to shoot it from a first-person point of view with a 1.33:1 aspect ratio. So we see either Elwood speaking in a scene, with Turner off-camera, or vice versa, and the two are only occasionally onscreen at the same time. Some might find this choice annoying, but I found it kept me centered on one boy’s perspective at a time, which served to make the final plot twist all the more satisfying.

Jennifer Ouellette

Inside Out 2

Credit: Pixar/Disney

I cried multiple times the first time I saw Inside Out in the theater, and still tear up when I watch it at home. So I was prepared to be even more emotional at Inside Out 2, especially given that I’m now the parent of a tween child myself.

I wasn’t quite moved to tears by this tale of Riley struggling with newfound feelings of Anxiety, pushing her to more and more desperate plans to ingratiate herself with a group of “cool” kids. But I will admit that my heart did break a little during the climactic scene, which shows the inner turmoil inherent to a true panic attack in a way that can resonate with both children and adults.

There were a couple of inconsistent attempts at comedy in Inside Out 2 that felt like they came from a completely different movie. And I found myself missing the original voice actors for Disgust and Envy, as well as Lewis Black’s original Anger voice (which has noticeably diminished as he’s aged). But none of this was enough to diminish the strong emotional core of a movie that will be relatable to anyone who’s busy growing up or just remembers doing the same.

Kyle Orland

And now… our pick for the best movie of 2024:

Dune: Part 2

Credit: Warner Bros.

David Lynch’s 1984 Dune was a huge chunk of my high school experience, being as I was part of a small group of friends obsessed with the movie—with its incredible visuals, its outsize but seemingly earnest camp, and its absolutely endless quotability. We sprinkled the movie’s words throughout our conversations, experimented with re-creating portions of it with video cameras and action figures, and reveled in exploring something that felt truly ours—largely because the movie was rejected and forgotten by so many others.

If anything, Lynch’s Dune put paid to the notion that Frank Herbert’s novel could be successfully ported to film. It’s a heroic effort, but it’s a bloody mess. And I would have gone to my grave thinking that Dune remained one of the most unfilmable classic bits of 20th-century science fiction—until Denis Villeneuve went and made the dang thing anyway.

The viscerally visual filmmaker who famously hates dialog did something I genuinely believed was impossible: He gave us a (two-part) translation of the book to screen that is both faithful to the original, and also shows us new things that feel like they’ve been there all along, waiting to be discovered.

Dune: Part Two is a masterpiece. It is the product of craftsmen at the top of their crafts, including and especially the craftsman in the director’s seat. Dune gives us a peek at exactly what Villeneuve means when he talks about the “paradise” of a movie without dialogue—there are long, almost Tarkovsky-esque stretches where vast cyclopean imagery juxtaposes itself against tiny human tableaus, underpinned by nothing but Hans Zimmer’s transcendent music. And it’s not just that these stretches work—they work fantastically well!—it’s that in many ways they carry the movie to places that rapid-fire Aaron Sorkin-style banter could never reach. The visuals show us things—things words never could.

Speaking of Hans Zimmer—let’s talk about that score. It’s an absolutely masterful creation that figures so prominently in our experience of Arrakis that it becomes a character itself, a second unseen narrator who alternates with poor unloved Irulan as the voice of the world. Paul and Chani’s love theme, a composition titled “A Time of Quiet Between the Storms,” is one of the most powerfully emotional pieces of music I’ve ever heard, embodying almost the platonic ideal of pure, mournful longing; the emotional hammer-blow delivered by its apocalyptic, civilization-ending reprise “Kiss the Ring” left me speechless and wide-eyed in the theater.

Folks, Dune: Part Two is a good movie. It (and its prequel) is one of the best movies I’ve ever seen, successfully adapting a difficult book into a movie and retaining the bits that mattered most. Villeneuve was born to make these films, and Zimmer was born to score them. They are true art. If anything, I’m even more excited now about another of Villeneuve’s upcoming projects: he’s taken over the reins for the long-stalled, long-rumored, finally-happening-for-real adaptation of Arthur C. Clarke’s Rendezvous with Rama, a book that heavily imprinted itself on me in fourth grade and that I’ve reread at least once a year for most of my life. If Villeneuve brings his A-game, I have the highest hopes for Rama.

Lee Hutchinson

Photo of Jennifer Ouellette

Jennifer is a senior reporter at Ars Technica with a particular focus on where science meets culture, covering everything from physics and related interdisciplinary topics to her favorite films and TV series. Jennifer lives in Baltimore with her spouse, physicist Sean M. Carroll, and their two cats, Ariel and Caliban.

Film Technica: Our favorite movies of 2024 Read More »

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Ars Technica’s top 20 video games of 2024


A relatively light year still had its fair share of interactive standouts.

Credit: Aurich Lawson | Getty Images

When we introduced last year’s annual list of the best games in this space, we focused on how COVID delays led to a 2023 packed with excellent big-name blockbusters and intriguing indies that seemed to come out of nowhere. The resulting flood of great titles made it difficult to winnow the year’s best down to our traditional list of 20 titles.

In 2024 we had something close to the opposite problem. While there were definitely a few standout titles that were easy to include on this year’s list (Balatro, UFO 50, and Astro Bot likely chief among them), rounding out the list to a full 20 proved more challenging than it has in perhaps any other year during my tenure at Ars Technica (way back in 2012!). The games that ended up on this year’s list are all strong recommendations, for sure. But many of them might have had more trouble making a Top 20 list in a packed year like 2023.

We’ll have to wait to see if the release calendar seesaws back to a quality-packed one in 2025, but the forecast for big games like Civilization 7, Avowed, Doom: The Dark Ages, Grand Theft Auto 6, and many, many more has us thinking that it might. In the meantime, here are our picks for the 20 best games that came out in 2024, in alphabetical order.

Animal Well

Billy Basso; Windows, PS5, Xbox X/S, Switch

The Metroidvania genre has started to feel a little played out of late. Go down this corridor, collect that item, go back to the wall that can only be destroyed by said item, explore a new corridor for the next item, etc. Repeat until you’ve seen the entire map or get too bored to continue.

Animal Well eschews this paint-by-numbers design and brings back the sense of mystery inherent to the best games in the genre. This is done in part by some masterful pixel-art graphics, which incorporate some wild 2D lighting effects and detailed, painterly sprite world. The animations—from subtle movements of the lowliest flower to terrifying, screen-filling actions from the game’s titular giant animals—are handled with equal aplomb.

But Animal Well really shines in its often inscrutable map and item design. Many key items in the game have multiple uses that aren’t fully explained in the game itself, requiring a good deal of guessing, checking, and observation to figure out how to exploit fully. Uncovering the arcane secrets of the game’s multiple environmental blocks is often far from obvious and rewards players who like to experiment and explore.

Those arcane secrets can sometimes seem too obtuse for their own good—don’t be surprised if you have to consult an outside walkthrough or work with someone to bust past some of the most inscrutable barriers put in your way. If you soldier through, though, you’ll have been on one of the most memorable journeys of its type.

-Kyle Orland

Astro Bot

Team Asobi; PS5

Astro Bot is an unlikely success story. The team that made it, Studio Asobi, was for years dedicated to making small-scale projects that were essentially glorified tech demos for Sony’s latest hardware. First there was The Playroom, which was just a collection of small experiences made to show off the features of the PlayStation 4’s camera peripheral. Then there was Astro Bot Rescue Mission, which acted as a showcase for the first PlayStation VR headset.

But momentum really picked up with Astro’s Playroom, the bite-size 2020 3D platformer that was bundled with every PlayStation 5—again to show off the hardware features. When I played it, my main thought was, “I really wish this team would make a full-blown game.”

That’s exactly what Astro Bot is: a 15-hourlong 3D platformer with AAA production values, with no goal other than just being an excellent game. Like its predecessors, it fully leverages all the hardware features of the PlayStation 5, and it’s loaded with Easter eggs and fan service for players who’ve been playing PlayStation consoles for three decades.

Like many 3D platformers, it’s a collect-a-thon. In this case, you’re gathering more than 300 little robot friends. All of them are modeled after characters from other games that defined the PlayStation platform, from Resident Evil to Ico to The Last of Us, from the obscure to the well-known.

Between those Easter eggs, the tightly designed gameplay, and the upbeat music, there’s an ever-present air of joy and celebration in Astro Bot—especially for players who get the references. But even if you’ve never played any of the games it draws on, it’s an excellent 3D platformer—perhaps the best released on any platform in the seven years since 2017’s Super Mario Odyssey.

The PlayStation 5 will arguably be best remembered for beefy open-world games, serious narrative titles, and multiplayer shooters. Amid all that, I don’t think anybody expected one of the best games ever released for the console to be a platformer that in some ways would feel more at home on the PlayStation 2—but that’s what happened, and I’m grateful for the time I spent with it.

The only negative thing I have to say about it is that because of how it leverages the specific features of the DualSense controller, it’s hard to imagine it’ll ever be playable for anyone who doesn’t own that device.

Is it worth buying a PS5 just to play Astro Bot? Probably not—as beefy as it is compared to Astro’s Playroom, there’s not enough here to justify that. But if you have one and you haven’t played it yet, get on it, because you’re missing out.

-Samuel Axon

Balatro

LocalThunk; Windows, PS4/5, Xbox One/Series, Switch, MacOS, iOS, Android

At first glance, video poker probably seems a bit too random to serve as the basis of yet another rogue-like deck-builder experience. As anyone who’s been to Atlantic City can tell you, video poker’s hold-and-draw hand-building involves only the barest hint of strategy and is designed so the house always wins.

The genius of Balatro, then, is in the layers of strategy it adds to this simple, easy-to-grasp poker hand base. The wide variety of score or hand-modifying jokers that you purchase in between hands can be arranged in literally millions of combinations, each of which can change the way a particular run goes in ways both large and small. Even the most powerful jokers can become nearly useless if you run into the wrong debuffing Boss Blind, forcing you to modify your strategy mid-run to keep the high-scoring poker hands coming.

Then you add in a complex in-game economy, powerful deck-altering arcana cards, dozens of Deck and Stake difficulty options, and a Challenge Mode whose hardest options have continued to thwart me even after well over 100 hours of play. The result is a game that’s instantly compelling and as addictive as a heater at a casino, only without the potential to lose your mortgage payment to a series of bad bets.

-Kyle Orland

The Crimson Diamond

Julia Minamata; Windows, Mac

Would you like to spend some time in a rural vacation town in Ontario, Canada, doing mineralogy fieldwork in the off-season? A better question, then: Would you like to go there in 16-color EGA, wandering through a classic adventure game, text parser and all?

The Crimson Diamond is one of the most intriguing gaming trips I took this year. It’s an achievement in creative constraints, a cozy mystery, and an ear-catching soundtrack. It was made by a solo Canadian developer, inside Adventure Game Studio, with some real work put into upgrading the text parser and (optional) mouse experience with reasonable quality-of-life concessions. The charming but mysterious plot gently pulls you along from one wonderfully realized 1980s-era IBM backdrop to the next. It feels like playing a game you forgot to unbox, except this one actually plays without a dozen compatibility tricks.

We are awash in game remasters and light remakes that toy with our memories of old systems and forgotten genres (and having a lot more time to play games). The Crimson Diamond does something much more interesting, finding just the right new story and distinct style to port backward to a bygone era. It’s worth the clicks for any fan of pointing, clicking, and investigating.

-Kevin Purdy

Elden Ring: Shadow of the Erdtree

From Software; Windows, PS4/5, Xbox One/Series

Credit: Bandai Namco

You can tell downloadable content has come a long way when we deign to put a piece of DLC on our best-games-of-the-year list in 2024.

Released two years after the megaton zeitgeist hit that was the original Elden Ring, Shadow of the Erdtree bucks just as many modern gaming conventions as its base game did. Yes, it’s DLC because it’s digitally distributed add-on content, but while most AAA games get DLC that adds about 5–10 hours of stuff to do, Shadow of the Erdtree‘s scope actually fell somewhere between a full sequel and the expansions you’d buy in separate retail boxes for PC games in the 1990s and 2000s. It adds a large new landmass to explore, with multiple additional “legacy dungeons” and tentpole bosses, plus new mechanics and weapons aplenty.

Additionally, the game’s designers cleverly mapped a whole new system on top of the base game’s player levels and equipment, ensuring that you could still get the same satisfying sense of power progression, regardless of how deeply you’d gotten into the Elden Ring base game previously. Shadow of the Erdtree attracted some criticism for its sharp difficulty—even more so than the base game—but the same satisfying progression from hopelessness to triumph through perseverance as we enjoyed in 2022 is in play here.

As such, everything that was great about Elden Ring is also great about Shadow of the Erdtree. You could cynically call it more of the same, but when what we’re getting more of is so delicious, it’s hard to complain—especially given that this expansion includes some of the most compelling and original bosses in From Software history.

It didn’t convert anyone who didn’t dig the original, but fortunately that still left it with an audience of millions of people who were excited for a new challenge. Its impressive polish and scope land it on this list.

-Samuel Axon

Frostpunk 2

11 bit studios; Windows, Mac (ARM-based); PlayStation, Xbox (coming in 2025)

Credit: 11 Bit Studios

The first Frostpunk asked if you could make the terrible decisions necessary for survival in a never-ending blizzard. Frostpunk 2 asks you to manage something different, but no less dire: helping these people who managed to hold on keep their nascent civilization together. You can go deep with the fascists, the mystics, the hard-nosed realists, or the science nerds or try to play them all off one another to keep the furnace going.

It’s stressful, and it’s not at all easy, and the developers may have done too good a job of recreating the insane demands and interplay of human factions. The interface and navigation, sore spots on launch, have received a lot of attention, and the roadmap for the game into 2025 looks intriguing. I’d probably recommend starting with the first game before diving into this, but Frostpunk 2 is an accomplished, confident game in its own right. Human failings amidst an unfeeling snowpocalypse make for some engaging scenes.

-Kevin Purdy

Halls of Torment

Chasing Carrots; Windows, Linux, iOS, Android

Credit: Chasing Carrots

The isometric demon-killing of the old-school Diablo games has endured over the decades, especially among those who remember playing in their youth. But the whole concept has been in need of a bit of an update now that we’re in the age of Vampire Survivors and its “Bullet Heaven” auto-shooter ilk.

Enter Halls of Torment, a game that is probably as close as it comes to aping old-school Diablo‘s visual style without being legally actionable. Here, though, all the lore and story and exploration of the Diablo games has been replaced by a lot more enemies, all streaming toward your protagonist at the rate of up to 50,000 per hour. Much like Vampire Survivors, the name of the game here is dodging through those small holes in those swarms of enemies while your character automatically fills the screen with devastating attacks (that slowly level up as you play).

The wide variety of different playable classes—each with their own distinct strengths, weaknesses, and unique attack patterns—help each run feel distinct, even after you’ve smashed through the game’s limited set of six environments. But there’s plenty of cathartic replay value here for anyone who just wants to cause as much on-screen carnage as possible in a very short period of time.

-Kyle Orland

Helldivers 2

Arrowhead Game Studios; Windows, PS5

Helldivers 2 player aiming a laser reticule into a massive explosion.

Credit: PlayStation/Arrowhead

Every so often, a multiplayer game releases to almost universal praise, and for a few months, seemingly everyone is talking about it. This year, that game was Helldivers 2. The game converted the 2015 original’s top-down shoot-em-up gameplay into third-person shooter action, and the switch-up was enough to bring in tons of players. Taking more than a few cues from Starship Troopers, the game asks you to “spread democracy” throughout the galaxy by mowing down hordes of alien bugs or robots during short-ish missions on various planets. Work together with your team, and the rest of the player base, to slowly liberate the galaxy.

I played Helldivers 2 mostly as a “hang out game,” something to do with my hands and eyes as I chatted with friends. You can play the game “seriously,” I guess, but that would be missing the point for me. My favorite part of Helldivers 2 is just blowing stuff up—bugs, buildings, and, yes, even teammates. Friendly fire is a core part of the experience, and whether by accident or on purpose, you will inevitably end up turning your munitions on your friends. My bad!

Some controversial balance patches put the game into a bit of an identity crisis for a while, but things seem to be back on track. I’ll admit the game didn’t have the staying power for me that it seemed to for others, but it was undeniably a highlight of the year.

-Aaron Zimmerman

Indiana Jones and the Great Circle

MachineGames; Windows, PS5, Xbox Series X/S

Credit: Bethesda / MachineGames

A new game based on the Indiana Jones license has a lot to live up to, both in terms of the films and TV shows that inspired it and the well-remembered games that preceded it. The Great Circle manages to live up to those expectations, crafting the most enjoyable Indy adventure in years.

The best part of the game is contained in the main storyline, captured mainly in exquisitely madcap cut scenes featuring plenty of the pun-filled, devil-may-care quipiness that Indy is known for. Voice actor Troy Baker does a great job channeling Harrison Ford (by way of Jeff Goldblum) as Indy, while antagonist Emmerich Voss provides all the scenery-chewing Nazi shenanigans you could want from the ridiculous, magical-realist storyline.

The stealth-action gameplay is a little more pedestrian but still manages to distinguish itself with suitably crunchy melee combat and the enjoyable improvisation of attacking Nazis with everyday items, from wrenches to plungers. And while the puzzles and side-quests can feel a bit basic at times, there are enough hidden trinkets in out-of-the-way corners to encourage completionists to explore every inch of the game’s intricately detailed open-world environments.

It’s just the kind of light-hearted, escapist, exploratory fun we need in these troubled times. Welcome back, Indy! We missed you!

-Kyle Orland

The Legend of Zelda: Echoes of Wisdom

Nintendo; Switch

After decades and decades of Zelda games where you don’t actually play as Zelda, there was a lot of pressure on a game where you finally get to control the princess herself as the protagonist (those CD-i monstrosities from the ’90s are best forgotten). Fortunately, Zelda’s turn in full control of her own series captures the franchise’s old-school, light-hearted adventuring fun with a few modern twists.

The main draw here is the titular “echo” abilities, which let Zelda copy enemies and objects that can be summoned in multiple copies with a special wand. This eventually opens up to allow for a number of inventive ways to solve some intricate puzzles in what feels like a heavily simplified version of Tears of the Kingdom‘s more complex crafting tools.

My favorite bit in Echoes of Wisdom, though, might be summoning copies of defeated enemies to fight new enemies in a kind of battle royale. As much as I love Link’s sword-swinging antics (which are partially captured here), just watching these magical minions do my combat for me is more than half of the fun in Echoes of Wisdom.

Even without those twists, though, Echoes of Wisdom provides all the old-school 2D Zelda dungeon exploring you could hope for, and the lighthearted storyline to match. Here’s hoping this isn’t the last time we’ll see Zelda taking a starring role in her own legends.

-Kyle Orland

Llamasoft: The Jeff Minter Story

Digital Eclipse; Windows, PS4/5, Xbox One/Series, Switch

I went into this latest Digital Eclipse playable museum as someone who had only a passing familiarity with Jeff Minter. I knew him mainly as a revered game development elder with a penchant for psychedelic graphics and an association with Tempest 2000. Then I spent hours devouring The Jeff Minter Story on my Steam Deck during a long flight, soaking in the full history of a truly unique character in the annals of gaming history.

The emulated games on this collection are actually pretty hit or miss, from a modern game design perspective. But the collection of interviews and supporting material on offer here are top-notch, putting each game into the context of the time and of Minter’s personal journey through an industry that was still in its infancy. I especially liked the scanned versions of Minter’s newsletter, sent to his early fans, which included plenty of diatribes and petty dramas about his game design peers and the industry as a whole.

There are few other figures in the early history of games that would merit this kind of singular focus—even early games were too often the collaborative product of larger companies with a more corporate focus (as seen in Digital Eclipse’s previous Atari 50. But I reveled in this opportunity to get to know Minter better for his unique and quixotic role in early gaming history.

-Kyle Orland

Lorelei and the Laser Eyes

Simogo; Windows, PS4/5, Switch

You’d be forgiven for finding Lorelei and the Laser Eyes at least a little pretentious. Everything from the black-and-white presentation—laced with only the occasional flash of red for emphasis —to the Twin Peaks-style absurdist writing to the grand pronouncements on the Importance and Beauty of Art make for a game that feels like it’s trying a little too hard, at points.

Push past that surface, though, and you’ll find one of the most intricately designed interactive puzzle boxes ever committed to bits and bytes. Lorelei goes well beyond the simple tile-pushing and lock-picking tasks that are laughably called “puzzles” in most other adventure games. The mind-teasers here require real out-of-the-box thinking, careful observation of the smallest environmental details, and multi-step deciphering of arcane codes.

This is a game that’s not afraid to cut you off from massive chunks of its content if you’re not able to get past a single near-inscrutable locked door puzzle—don’t feel bad if you need to consult a walkthrough at some point to move on. It’s also a game that practically requires a pen and paper notes to keep track of all the moving pieces—your notebook will look like the scribblings of a madman by the time you’re done.

And you may actually feel a little mad as you try to unravel the meaning of the game’s multiple labyrinthine layers and self-aware, time-bending, magical-realist storyline. When it all comes together at the end, you may just find yourself surprisingly moved not just by the intricate design, but by that oft-pretentious plot as well.

-Kyle Orland

Metal Slug Tactics

Leikir Studio; Windows, PS4/5, Xbox One/Series, Switch

Credit: Dotemu

Good tactics games are all about how the game plays in your mind. How many ways can you overcome this obstacle, maximize this turn, and synergize your squad’s abilities? So it’s a very nice bonus when such a well-made pile of engaging decisions also happens to look absolutely wonderful and capture the incredibly detailed sense of motion of a legendary run-and-gun franchise.

That’s Metal Slug Tactics, and it’s one of the most surprising successes of 2024. It delivers the look and feel of a franchise that isn’t easy to get right, and it translates those games’ feeling of continuous motion into turn-based tactics. The more you move, shoot, and team up each turn, the better you’ll do. You can do a level or two on a subway ride, crank out a rogue-ish run on a lunch break, and keep getting rewarded with new characters, unlocks, and skill tree branches.

If you’re always contemplating a replay of Final Fantasy Tactics, but might like a new challenge, consider giving this unlikely combination of goofy arcade revival and deep strategy a go.

-Kevin Purdy

Parking Garage Rally Circuit

Walaber Entertainment; Windows

The rise of popular, ultra-detailed racing sims like Gran Turismo and Forza Motorsport has coincided with a general decline in the drift-heavy, arcadey side of the genre. Titles like Ridge Racer Sega Rally or even Crazy Taxi now belong more in the industry’s nostalgic memories than its present top-sellers.

Parking Garage Rally Circuit is doing its best to bring the arcade racer genre back single-handedly. The game’s perfectly tuned drifting controls make every turn a joyful sliding experience, complete with chainable post-drift boosts for those who want to tune that perfect speedy line. It captures that great feeling of being just on the edge of losing control, while still holding onto the edge of that perfect drift.

It all takes place, as the name implies, winding up, down, over, and through some well-designed parking garages. Each track’s short laps (which take a minute or less) ensure you can practically memorize the best paths after just a little bit of play. But the stopped cars and large traffic dividers provide for some hilarious physics-based crashes when your racing line does go wrong.

The game earns extra nostalgia points for a variety of visual effects and graphics options that accurately mimic Dreamcast-era consoles and/or emulation-era PC hardware. But the game’s extensive online leaderboards and ghost-racers help it feel like a decidedly modern take on a classic genre.

-Kyle Orland

Pepper Grinder

Ahr Ech; Windows, MacOS, Linux, PS4/5, Xbox One/Series, Switch

It’s amazing how far a platform game can get on nothing more than a novel control scheme. Pepper Grinder is a case in point here, based around a tiny, blue-haired protagonist who uses an oversized drill to tunnel through soft ground like some kind of human-machine-snake hybrid.

Navigating through the dirt in large, undulating curves is fun enough, but the game really shines when Pepper bursts out through the top layer of dirt in large, arcing jumps. Chaining these together, from dirt clump to dirt clump, is the most instantly compelling new 2D navigation scheme we’ve seen in years and creates some beautiful, almost balletic curves through the levels once you’ve mastered it.

The biggest problem with Pepper Grinder is that the game is over practically before it really gets going. And while some compelling time-attack and item-collection challenges help to extend the experience a bit, we really hope some new DLC or a proper sequel is coming soon to give us a new excuse to wind our way through the dirt.

-Kyle Orland

The Rise of the Golden Idol

Color Gray Games; Windows, MacOS, iOS, Android, PS4/5, Xbox One/Series, Switch

In 2022, The Case of the Golden Idol proved that details like a controllable protagonist or elaborate cut scenes are unnecessary for a good murder mystery-solving puzzle adventure. All you need is a series of lightly animated vignettes, a way to uncover the smallest hidden details in those vignettes, and a fill-in-the-blanks interface to let you piece together the disparate clues.

As a follow-up, Rise moves the 18th-century setting of the original into the 20th century, bringing the mysterious, powerful idol to the attention of both academic scientists and mass media executives who seek to exploit its mind-altering powers. From your semi-omniscient perspective, you have to figure out not just the names and motivations of those pulled into the idol’s orbit, but the somewhat inscrutable powers of the idol itself.

Rise adds a few interesting new twists, like the ability to scrub through occasional video animations for visual clues and the ability to track certain scenes throughout multiple times of day. At its core, though, this is an extension of the best-in-class, pure deductive reasoning gameplay we saw in the original game, with a slightly more modern twist. This is yet another 2024 favorite that requires strong attention to detail and logical inference from very small hints.

It all comes together in a satisfying conclusion that leaves the door wide open for a sequel that we can’t wait for.

-Kyle Orland

Satisfactory

Coffee Stain Studios; Windows

Danish publisher Coffee Stain makes gaming success seem so simple. Put a game with a goofy feel, a corporate dystopia, and complex systems into early access. Iterate, cultivate feedback and a sense of ownership with the community. Take your time, refine, and then release the game, without any revenue-grabbing transactions or add-ons, beyond fun cosmetics. They did it with Deep Rock Galactic, and they’ve done it again with Satisfactory. By the time the game hit 1.0, the only thing left to add was “Premium plumbing.”

It’s remarkably fun to live on the bad-guy side of The Lorax, exploiting a planet’s natural resources to create a giant factory system producing widgets for corporate wellbeing. The first-person perspective might seem odd for game with such complex systems, but it heightens your sense of accomplishment. You didn’t just choose to put a conveyor belt between that ore extractor and that fabricator; you personally staked out that deposit, and your ran the track yourself.

The systems are incredibly deep, but it can be quite relaxing to wander around your planet-sized industrial park, thinking up ways that things might run better, faster, with no interruptions. It’s the kind of second job you’re happy to buy into, giving you a deep sense of accomplishment for learning the ins and outs of this system, even as it gently mocks you for engaging with it. Satisfactory has itself worked for years to refine the most efficient gameplay for its bravest fans, and now it’s ready to employ the rest of us.

-Kevin Purdy

Sixty Four

Oleg Danilov; Windows, Mac

I try not to think about, or write about, games in the manner of “dollars to enjoyment ratio.” Games often get cheaper over time, everybody enjoys them differently, and they’re art, too, as well as commerce. But, folks, come on: $6 for Sixty Four? If you play it for one hour and just smile a few times at its oddities and tiny cubes, that was less than a big-city latte or beer.

But you will almost certainly play Sixty Four for more than one hour, and maybe many more hours than that if you enjoy games with systems, building, and resources. You build and place machines to extract resources, use those resources to fund new and better machines, rearrange your machines, and eventually create beautiful workflows that are largely automated. Why do you do this? It’s a fun, dark mystery.

The game looks wonderful in its SimCity 2000/3000-esque style. It can be mentally taxing, but you can’t really lose; you can even leave the game window open in the background while you convince your boss or remote work software that you’re otherwise productive. It’s a fever dream I’d recommend to most anybody, unless they dread a repeat of the many lost days to games like Factorio, Satisfactory, or even Universal Paperclips. Just wishlist it, in that case; what could go wrong?

-Kevin Purdy

Tactical Breach Wizards

Suspicious Developments; Windows

Credit: Suspicious Developments

What can you do to spice up turn-based tactics, a rather mature genre?

Tactical Breach Wizards adds future-seeing, time-bending, hex-placing wizards, for one thing. It refines the heck out of grid combat, for another, adding window-tossing and door-sealing into the mix, and giving enemies a much wider array of attacks than area-of-effect variations. Finally, it wraps this all up in an inventive sci-fi narrative, one with an engaging plot, characters that reveal themselves one quip at a time, and an overall sense of wonderment at a charming, bizarre world of militarized magic.

In other words, you could put some joy into your turn-based combat, while still offering intricate challenges and clever levels.

Tom Francis’ unique sense of humor, seen previously in Gunpoint and Heat Signature, is given space here to shine, and it’s a wonderful wrapper for all the missions and upgrade decisions. It’s pretty ridiculous to be a wizard, wielding a laser-scoped rifle that fires crystal energy, plotting how to hit three guards at once with your next blast. Tactical Breach Wizards knows this, jokes about it, and then celebrates with you when you pull it off. It’s both a hoot, and a very good shoot.

-Kevin Purdy

UFO 50

Mossmouth; Windows

In recent years, modern games have started evoking the blocky polygons and smeary textures of early 3D games to appeal to nostalgic 20- and 30-somethings. UFO 50 has its nostalgic foot placed firmly in an earlier generation of ’80s and ’90s console gaming, with a bit of early ’00s Flash game design thrown in for good measure.

Flipping your way through the extremely wide variety of games on offer here is like an eminently enjoyable trip through random titles in an emulator’s (legally obtained) classic ROMs folder—just set in an alternate universe. There are plenty of shmups and platform games befitting the ostensible gaming era being recreated—but you also get full-fledged strategy, puzzle, arcade, racing, adventure, and RPG titles, on top of a few so unique that I can’t find any real historical genre analog for. These well-designed titles evoke the classics—everything from Bad Dudes and Bubble Bobble to Super Dodge Ball and Smash TV—without ever feeling like a simple rehash of games you remember from your youth.

While there’s the usual spread of quality you’d expect from such a wide-ranging collection, even the worst-made title in UFO 50 shows a level of care and attention to detail that will delight anyone with even a passing interest in game design and/or history. Not every game in UFO 50 will be one of your all-time favorites, but I’d be willing to wager that any gamer of a certain age will find quite a few that will eat away plenty of pleasant, nostalgic hours.

-Kyle Orland

Photo of Kyle Orland

Kyle Orland has been the Senior Gaming Editor at Ars Technica since 2012, writing primarily about the business, tech, and culture behind video games. He has journalism and computer science degrees from University of Maryland. He once wrote a whole book about Minesweeper.

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why-ai-language-models-choke-on-too-much-text

Why AI language models choke on too much text


Compute costs scale with the square of the input size. That’s not great.

Credit: Aurich Lawson | Getty Images

Large language models represent text using tokens, each of which is a few characters. Short words are represented by a single token (like “the” or “it”), whereas larger words may be represented by several tokens (GPT-4o represents “indivisible” with “ind,” “iv,” and “isible”).

When OpenAI released ChatGPT two years ago, it had a memory—known as a context window—of just 8,192 tokens. That works out to roughly 6,000 words of text. This meant that if you fed it more than about 15 pages of text, it would “forget” information from the beginning of its context. This limited the size and complexity of tasks ChatGPT could handle.

Today’s LLMs are far more capable:

  • OpenAI’s GPT-4o can handle 128,000 tokens (about 200 pages of text).
  • Anthropic’s Claude 3.5 Sonnet can accept 200,000 tokens (about 300 pages of text).
  • Google’s Gemini 1.5 Pro allows 2 million tokens (about 2,000 pages of text).

Still, it’s going to take a lot more progress if we want AI systems with human-level cognitive abilities.

Many people envision a future where AI systems are able to do many—perhaps most—of the jobs performed by humans. Yet many human workers read and hear hundreds of millions of words during our working years—and we absorb even more information from sights, sounds, and smells in the world around us. To achieve human-level intelligence, AI systems will need the capacity to absorb similar quantities of information.

Right now the most popular way to build an LLM-based system to handle large amounts of information is called retrieval-augmented generation (RAG). These systems try to find documents relevant to a user’s query and then insert the most relevant documents into an LLM’s context window.

This sometimes works better than a conventional search engine, but today’s RAG systems leave a lot to be desired. They only produce good results if the system puts the most relevant documents into the LLM’s context. But the mechanism used to find those documents—often, searching in a vector database—is not very sophisticated. If the user asks a complicated or confusing question, there’s a good chance the RAG system will retrieve the wrong documents and the chatbot will return the wrong answer.

And RAG doesn’t enable an LLM to reason in more sophisticated ways over large numbers of documents:

  • A lawyer might want an AI system to review and summarize hundreds of thousands of emails.
  • An engineer might want an AI system to analyze thousands of hours of camera footage from a factory floor.
  • A medical researcher might want an AI system to identify trends in tens of thousands of patient records.

Each of these tasks could easily require more than 2 million tokens of context. Moreover, we’re not going to want our AI systems to start with a clean slate after doing one of these jobs. We will want them to gain experience over time, just like human workers do.

Superhuman memory and stamina have long been key selling points for computers. We’re not going to want to give them up in the AI age. Yet today’s LLMs are distinctly subhuman in their ability to absorb and understand large quantities of information.

It’s true, of course, that LLMs absorb superhuman quantities of information at training time. The latest AI models have been trained on trillions of tokens—far more than any human will read or hear. But a lot of valuable information is proprietary, time-sensitive, or otherwise not available for training.

So we’re going to want AI models to read and remember far more than 2 million tokens at inference time. And that won’t be easy.

The key innovation behind transformer-based LLMs is attention, a mathematical operation that allows a model to “think about” previous tokens. (Check out our LLM explainer if you want a detailed explanation of how this works.) Before an LLM generates a new token, it performs an attention operation that compares the latest token to every previous token. This means that conventional LLMs get less and less efficient as the context grows.

Lots of people are working on ways to solve this problem—I’ll discuss some of them later in this article. But first I should explain how we ended up with such an unwieldy architecture.

The “brains” of personal computers are central processing units (CPUs). Traditionally, chipmakers made CPUs faster by increasing the frequency of the clock that acts as its heartbeat. But in the early 2000s, overheating forced chipmakers to mostly abandon this technique.

Chipmakers started making CPUs that could execute more than one instruction at a time. But they were held back by a programming paradigm that requires instructions to mostly be executed in order.

A new architecture was needed to take full advantage of Moore’s Law. Enter Nvidia.

In 1999, Nvidia started selling graphics processing units (GPUs) to speed up the rendering of three-dimensional games like Quake III Arena. The job of these PC add-on cards was to rapidly draw thousands of triangles that made up walls, weapons, monsters, and other objects in a game.

This is not a sequential programming task: triangles in different areas of the screen can be drawn in any order. So rather than having a single processor that executed instructions one at a time, Nvidia’s first GPU had a dozen specialized cores—effectively tiny CPUs—that worked in parallel to paint a scene.

Over time, Moore’s Law enabled Nvidia to make GPUs with tens, hundreds, and eventually thousands of computing cores. People started to realize that the massive parallel computing power of GPUs could be used for applications unrelated to video games.

In 2012, three University of Toronto computer scientists—Alex Krizhevsky, Ilya Sutskever, and Geoffrey Hinton—used a pair of Nvidia GTX 580 GPUs to train a neural network for recognizing images. The massive computing power of those GPUs, which had 512 cores each, allowed them to train a network with a then-impressive 60 million parameters. They entered ImageNet, an academic competition to classify images into one of 1,000 categories, and set a new record for accuracy in image recognition.

Before long, researchers were applying similar techniques to a wide variety of domains, including natural language.

RNNs worked fairly well on short sentences, but they struggled with longer ones—to say nothing of paragraphs or longer passages. When reasoning about a long sentence, an RNN would sometimes “forget about” an important word early in the sentence. In 2014, computer scientists Dzmitry Bahdanau, Kyunghyun Cho, and Yoshua Bengio discovered they could improve the performance of a recurrent neural network by adding an attention mechanism that allowed the network to “look back” at earlier words in a sentence.

In 2017, Google published “Attention Is All You Need,” one of the most important papers in the history of machine learning. Building on the work of Bahdanau and his colleagues, Google researchers dispensed with the RNN and its hidden states. Instead, Google’s model used an attention mechanism to scan previous words for relevant context.

This new architecture, which Google called the transformer, proved hugely consequential because it eliminated a serious bottleneck to scaling language models.

Here’s an animation illustrating why RNNs didn’t scale well:

This hypothetical RNN tries to predict the next word in a sentence, with the prediction shown in the top row of the diagram. This network has three layers, each represented by a rectangle. It is inherently linear: it has to complete its analysis of the first word, “How,” before passing the hidden state back to the bottom layer so the network can start to analyze the second word, “are.”

This constraint wasn’t a big deal when machine learning algorithms ran on CPUs. But when people started leveraging the parallel computing power of GPUs, the linear architecture of RNNs became a serious obstacle.

The transformer removed this bottleneck by allowing the network to “think about” all the words in its input at the same time:

The transformer-based model shown here does roughly as many computations as the RNN in the previous diagram. So it might not run any faster on a (single-core) CPU. But because the model doesn’t need to finish with “How” before starting on “are,” “you,” or “doing,” it can work on all of these words simultaneously. So it can run a lot faster on a GPU with many parallel execution units.

How much faster? The potential speed-up is proportional to the number of input words. My animations depict a four-word input that makes the transformer model about four times faster than the RNN. Real LLMs can have inputs thousands of words long. So, with a sufficiently beefy GPU, transformer-based models can be orders of magnitude faster than otherwise similar RNNs.

In short, the transformer unlocked the full processing power of GPUs and catalyzed rapid increases in the scale of language models. Leading LLMs grew from hundreds of millions of parameters in 2018 to hundreds of billions of parameters by 2020. Classic RNN-based models could not have grown that large because their linear architecture prevented them from being trained efficiently on a GPU.

See all those diagonal arrows between the layers? They represent the operation of the attention mechanism. Before a transformer-based language model generates a new token, it “thinks about” every previous token to find the ones that are most relevant.

Each of these comparisons is cheap, computationally speaking. For small contexts—10, 100, or even 1,000 tokens—they are not a big deal. But the computational cost of attention grows relentlessly with the number of preceding tokens. The longer the context gets, the more attention operations (and therefore computing power) are needed to generate the next token.

This means that the total computing power required for attention grows quadratically with the total number of tokens. Suppose a 10-token prompt requires 414,720 attention operations. Then:

  • Processing a 100-token prompt will require 45.6 million attention operations.
  • Processing a 1,000-token prompt will require 4.6 billion attention operations.
  • Processing a 10,000-token prompt will require 460 billion attention operations.

This is probably why Google charges twice as much, per token, for Gemini 1.5 Pro once the context gets longer than 128,000 tokens. Generating token number 128,001 requires comparisons with all 128,000 previous tokens, making it significantly more expensive than producing the first or 10th or 100th token.

A lot of effort has been put into optimizing attention. One line of research has tried to squeeze maximum efficiency out of individual GPUs.

As we saw earlier, a modern GPU contains thousands of execution units. Before a GPU can start doing math, it must move data from slow shared memory (called high-bandwidth memory) to much faster memory inside a particular execution unit (called SRAM). Sometimes GPUs spend more time moving data around than performing calculations.

In a series of papers, Princeton computer scientist Tri Dao and several collaborators have developed FlashAttention, which calculates attention in a way that minimizes the number of these slow memory operations. Work like Dao’s has dramatically improved the performance of transformers on modern GPUs.

Another line of research has focused on efficiently scaling attention across multiple GPUs. One widely cited paper describes ring attention, which divides input tokens into blocks and assigns each block to a different GPU. It’s called ring attention because GPUs are organized into a conceptual ring, with each GPU passing data to its neighbor.

I once attended a ballroom dancing class where couples stood in a ring around the edge of the room. After each dance, women would stay where they were while men would rotate to the next woman. Over time, every man got a chance to dance with every woman. Ring attention works on the same principle. The “women” are query vectors (describing what each token is “looking for”) and the “men” are key vectors (describing the characteristics each token has). As the key vectors rotate through a sequence of GPUs, they get multiplied by every query vector in turn.

In short, ring attention distributes attention calculations across multiple GPUs, making it possible for LLMs to have larger context windows. But it doesn’t make individual attention calculations any cheaper.

The fixed-size hidden state of an RNN means that it doesn’t have the same scaling problems as a transformer. An RNN requires about the same amount of computing power to produce its first, hundredth and millionth token. That’s a big advantage over attention-based models.

Although RNNs have fallen out of favor since the invention of the transformer, people have continued trying to develop RNNs suitable for training on modern GPUs.

In April, Google announced a new model called Infini-attention. It’s kind of a hybrid between a transformer and an RNN. Infini-attention handles recent tokens like a normal transformer, remembering them and recalling them using an attention mechanism.

However, Infini-attention doesn’t try to remember every token in a model’s context. Instead, it stores older tokens in a “compressive memory” that works something like the hidden state of an RNN. This data structure can perfectly store and recall a few tokens, but as the number of tokens grows, its recall becomes lossier.

Machine learning YouTuber Yannic Kilcher wasn’t too impressed by Google’s approach.

“I’m super open to believing that this actually does work and this is the way to go for infinite attention, but I’m very skeptical,” Kilcher said. “It uses this compressive memory approach where you just store as you go along, you don’t really learn how to store, you just store in a deterministic fashion, which also means you have very little control over what you store and how you store it.”

Perhaps the most notable effort to resurrect RNNs is Mamba, an architecture that was announced in a December 2023 paper. It was developed by computer scientists Dao (who also did the FlashAttention work I mentioned earlier) and Albert Gu.

Mamba does not use attention. Like other RNNs, it has a hidden state that acts as the model’s “memory.” Because the hidden state has a fixed size, longer prompts do not increase Mamba’s per-token cost.

When I started writing this article in March, my goal was to explain Mamba’s architecture in some detail. But then in May, the researchers released Mamba-2, which significantly changed the architecture from the original Mamba paper. I’ll be frank: I struggled to understand the original Mamba and have not figured out how Mamba-2 works.

But the key thing to understand is that Mamba has the potential to combine transformer-like performance with the efficiency of conventional RNNs.

In June, Dao and Gu co-authored a paper with Nvidia researchers that evaluated a Mamba model with 8 billion parameters. They found that models like Mamba were competitive with comparably sized transformers in a number of tasks, but they “lag behind Transformer models when it comes to in-context learning and recalling information from the context.”

Transformers are good at information recall because they “remember” every token of their context—this is also why they become less efficient as the context grows. In contrast, Mamba tries to compress the context into a fixed-size state, which necessarily means discarding some information from long contexts.

The Nvidia team found they got the best performance from a hybrid architecture that interleaved 24 Mamba layers with four attention layers. This worked better than either a pure transformer model or a pure Mamba model.

A model needs some attention layers so it can remember important details from early in its context. But a few attention layers seem to be sufficient; the rest of the attention layers can be replaced by cheaper Mamba layers with little impact on the model’s overall performance.

In August, an Israeli startup called AI21 announced its Jamba 1.5 family of models. The largest version had 398 billion parameters, making it comparable in size to Meta’s Llama 405B model. Jamba 1.5 Large has seven times more Mamba layers than attention layers. As a result, Jamba 1.5 Large requires far less memory than comparable models from Meta and others. For example, AI21 estimates that Llama 3.1 70B needs 80GB of memory to keep track of 256,000 tokens of context. Jamba 1.5 Large only needs 9GB, allowing the model to run on much less powerful hardware.

The Jamba 1.5 Large model gets an MMLU score of 80, significantly below the Llama 3.1 70B’s score of 86. So by this measure, Mamba doesn’t blow transformers out of the water. However, this may not be an apples-to-apples comparison. Frontier labs like Meta have invested heavily in training data and post-training infrastructure to squeeze a few more percentage points of performance out of benchmarks like MMLU. It’s possible that the same kind of intense optimization could close the gap between Jamba and frontier models.

So while the benefits of longer context windows is obvious, the best strategy to get there is not. In the short term, AI companies may continue using clever efficiency and scaling hacks (like FlashAttention and Ring Attention) to scale up vanilla LLMs. Longer term, we may see growing interest in Mamba and perhaps other attention-free architectures. Or maybe someone will come up with a totally new architecture that renders transformers obsolete.

But I am pretty confident that scaling up transformer-based frontier models isn’t going to be a solution on its own. If we want models that can handle billions of tokens—and many people do—we’re going to need to think outside the box.

Tim Lee was on staff at Ars from 2017 to 2021. Last year, he launched a newsletter, Understanding AI, that explores how AI works and how it’s changing our world. You can subscribe here.

Photo of Timothy B. Lee

Timothy is a senior reporter covering tech policy and the future of transportation. He lives in Washington DC.

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Buying a TV in 2025? Expect lower prices, more ads, and an OS war.


“I do fear that the pressure to make better TVs will be lost…”

If you’re looking to buy a TV in 2025, you may be disappointed by the types of advancements TV brands will be prioritizing in the new year. While there’s an audience of enthusiasts interested in developments in tech like OLED, QDEL, and Micro LED, plus other features like transparency and improved audio, that doesn’t appear to be what the industry is focused on.

Today’s TV selection has a serious dependency on advertisements and user tracking. In 2025, we expect competition in the TV industry to center around TV operating systems (OSes) and TVs’ ability to deliver more relevant advertisements to viewers.

That yields a complicated question for shoppers: Are you willing to share your data with retail conglomerates and ad giants to save money on a TV?

Vizio is a Walmart brand now

One of the most impactful changes to the TV market next year will be Walmart owning Vizio. For Walmart, the deal, which closed on December 3 for approximately $2.3 billion, is about owning the data collection capabilities of Vizio’s SmartCast OS. For years, Vizio has been shifting its business from hardware sales to Platform+, “which consists largely of its advertising business” and “now accounts for all the company’s gross profit,” as Walmart noted when announcing the acquisition.

Walmart will use data collected from Vizio TVs to fuel its ad business, which sells ads on the OSes of its TVs (including Vizio and Onn brand TVs) and point-of-sale machines in Walmart stores. In a December 3 statement, Walmart confirmed its intentions with Vizio:

The acquisition… allows Walmart to serve its customers in new ways to enhance their shopping journeys. It will also bring to market new and differentiated ways for advertisers to meaningfully connect with customers at scale and boost product discovery, helping brands achieve greater impact from their advertising investments with Walmart Connect—the company’s retail media business in the US.

In 2025, buying a Vizio TV won’t just mean buying a TV from a company that’s essentially an ad business. It will mean fueling Walmart’s ad business. With Walmart also owning Onn and Amazon owning Fire TVs, that means there’s one less TV brand that isn’t a cog in a retail giant’s ever-expanding ad machine. With a history that includes complaints around working conditions and questionable products, including some that are straight scams, some people (including numerous Ars commenters) try to avoid commerce giants like Walmart and Amazon. In 2025, that will be harder for people looking for a new TV, especially an inexpensive one.

“Roku is at grave risk”

Further, Walmart has expressed a goal of becoming one of the 10 biggest ad companies, with the ad business notably having higher margins than groceries. It could use Vizio, via more plentiful and/or intrusive ads, to fuel those goals.

And Walmart’s TV market share is set to grow in the new year. Paul Gray, research director of consumer electronics and devices at Omdia, told Ars Technica he expects that “the new combined sales (Vizio plus Walmart’s white label) will be bigger than the current market leader Samsung.”

There are also potential implications related to how Walmart decides to distribute TVs post-acquisition. As Patrick Horner, practice leader of consumer electronics at Omdia, told Ars:

One of the possibilities is that Walmart could make use of the Vizio operating system a condition for placement in stores. This could change not only the Onn/Vizio TVs but may also include the Chinese brands. The [Korean] and Japanese brands may resist, as they have premium brand positioning, but the Chinese brands would be vulnerable. Roku is at grave risk.

Roku acquisition?

With Walmart set to challenge Roku, some analysts anticipate that Roku will be acquired in 2025. In December, Guggenheim analysts predicted that ad tech firm The Trade Desk, which is launching its own TV OS, will look to buy Roku to scale its OS business.

Needham & Company’s Laura Martin also thinks an acquisition—by The Trade Desk or possibly one of Walmart’s retail competitors—could be on the horizon.

‘’Walmart has told you by buying Vizio that these large retailers need a connected television advertising platform to tie purchases to,” Martin told Bloomberg. “That means Target and other large retailers have that reason to buy Roku to tie Roku’s connected television ad units to their sales in their retail stores. And by the way, Roku has much higher margins than any retailer.’”

She also pointed to Amazon as a potential buyer, noting that it might be able to use Roku’s user data to feed large language models.

Roku was already emboldened enough in 2024 to introduce home screen video ads to its TVs and streaming devices and has even explored technology for showing ads over anything plugged into a Roku set. Imagine how using Roku devices might further evolve if owned by a company like The Trade Desk or Amazon with deep interests in ads and tracking.

TV owners accustomed to being tracked

TV brands have become so dependent on ads that some are selling TVs at a loss to push ads. How did we get to the point where TV brands view their hardware as a way to track and sell to viewers? Part of the reason TV OSes are pushing the limits on ads is that many viewers seem willing to accept them, especially in the name of saving money.

Per the North American Q2 2024 TiVo Video Trends Report, 64.3 percent of subscription video-on-demand users subscribe to an ad-supported tier (compared to 48 percent in Q2 2023). And users are showing more tolerance to ads, with 77.8 percent saying they are “tolerant” or “in favor of” ads, up from 74 percent in Q2 2023. This is compared to 22.2 percent of respondents saying they’re “averse” to ads. TiVo surveyed 4,490 people in the US and Canada ages 18 and up for the report.

“Based on streaming services, many consumers see advertising as a small price to pay for lower cash costs,” Horner said.

The analyst added:

While some consumers will be sensitive to privacy issues or intrusive advertising, at the same time, most people have shown themselves entirely comfortable with being tracked by (for example) social media.

Alan Wolk, co-founder and lead analyst at the TVREV TV and streaming analyst group, agreed that platforms like Instagram have proven people’s willingness to accept ads and tracking, particularly if it leads to them seeing more relevant advertisements or giving shows or movies better ratings. According to the analyst, customers seem to think, “Google is tracking my finances, my porn habits, my everything. Why do I care if NBC knows that I watch football and The Tonight Show?”

While Ars readers may be more guarded about Google having an insider look at their data, many web users have a more accepting attitude. This has opened the door for TVs to test users’ max tolerance for ads and tracking to deliver more relevant ads.

That said, there’s a fine line.

“Companies have to be careful of… finding that line between taking in advertising, especially display ads on the home screen or whatnot, and it becoming overwhelming [for viewers],” Wolk said.

One of the fastest-growing ad vehicles for TVs currently and into 2025 is free, ad-supported streaming television (FAST) channels that come preloaded and make money from targeted ads. TCL is already experimenting with what viewers will accept here. It recently premiered movies made with generative AI that it hopes will fuel its FAST business while saving money. TCL believes that passive viewers will accept a lot of free content, even AI-generated movies and shows. But some viewers are extremely put off by such media, and there’s a risk of souring the reputation of some FAST services.

OS wars

We can expect more competition from TV OS operators in 2025, including from companies that traditionally have had no place in consumer hardware, like ad tech giant The Trade Desk. These firms face steep competition, though. Ultimately, the battle of TV OSes could end up driving improvements around usability, content recommendations, and, for better or worse, ad targeting.

Following heightened competition among TV OSes, Omdia’s Gray expects winners to start emerging, followed by consolidation.

“I expect that the final state will be a big winner, a couple of sizeable players, and some niche offerings,” he said.

Companies without backgrounds in consumer tech will have difficulty getting a foot into an already crowded market, which means we may not have to worry much about companies like The Trade Desk taking over our TVs.

“I have yet to meet a single person who hasn’t looked at me quizzically and said, ‘Wait, what are they thinking?’ Because the US market for the operating system is very tight,” Wolk said. “… So for American consumers, I don’t think we’ll see too many new entrants.”

You can also expect Comcast and Charter to push deeper into TV software as they deal with plummeting cable businesses. In November, they made a deal to put their joint venture’s TV OS, Xumo OS, in Hisense TVs that will be sold in Target. Xumo TVs are already available in almost 8,000 locations, Comcast and Charter said in November. The companies claimed that the retailers selling Xumo TVs “represent nearly 75 percent of all smart TV sales in the US.”

Meanwhile, Xperi Corp. said in November that it expected its TiVo OS to be in 2 million TVs by the end of 2024 and 7 million TVs by the end of 2025. At the heart of Tivo OS is TiVo One, which TiVo describes as a “cross-screen ad platform for new inventory combined with audience targeting and monetization” that is available in TVs and car displays. Announcing TiVo One in May, Xperi declared that the “advertising market is projected to reach [$36] billion” by 2026, meaning that “advertising on smart TVs has never been more imperative.”

But as competition intensifies and pushes the market into selecting a few “sizeable players,” as Gray put it, there’s more pressure for companies to make their OSes stand out to TV owners. This is due to advertising interests, but it also means more focus on making TVs easier to use and better able to help people find something to watch.

Not a lot of options

At the start of this article, we asked if you’d be willing to share your data with retail conglomerates and ad giants to save money on a TV. But the truth is there aren’t many alternative options beyond disconnecting your TV from the Internet or paying for an Apple TV streaming device in addition to your TV. Indeed, amid a war among OSes, many Ars readers will opt not to leverage ad-filled software at all. This shows a disconnect between TV makers and a core audience while suggesting limits in terms of new TV experiences next year.

Still, analysts agree that even among more expensive TV brands, there has been a shift toward building out ad businesses and OSes over improving hardware features like audio.

“This is a low-margin business, and even in the premium segment, the revenues from ads and data are significant. Also, the sort of consumer who buys a premium TV is likely to be especially interesting to advertisers,” Gray said.

Some worry about what this means for TV innovation. With software being at the center of TV businesses, there seems to be less incentive to drive hardware-related advancements. Gray echoed this sentiment while acknowledging that the current state of TVs is at least driving down TV prices.

“I do fear that the pressure to make better TVs will be lost and that matters such as… durability and performance risk being de-prioritized,” he said.

Vendors are largely leaving shoppers to drive improvements themselves, such as by buying additional gadgets like soundbars, Wolk noted.

In 2025, TVs will continue focusing innovation around software, which has immediate returns via ad sales compared to new hardware, which can take years to develop and catch on with shoppers. For some, this is creating a strong demand for dumb TVs, but unfortunately, there are no immediate signs of that becoming a trend.

As Horner put it, “This is an advertising/e-commerce-driven market, not a consumer-driven market. TV content is just the bait in the trap.”

Photo of Scharon Harding

Scharon is Ars Technica’s Senior Product Reviewer writing news, reviews, and analysis on consumer technology, including laptops, mechanical keyboards, and monitors. She’s based in Brooklyn.

Buying a TV in 2025? Expect lower prices, more ads, and an OS war. Read More »

the-us-military-is-now-talking-openly-about-going-on-the-attack-in-space

The US military is now talking openly about going on the attack in space

Mastalir said China is “copying the US playbook” with the way it integrates satellites into more conventional military operations on land, in the air, and at sea. “Their specific goals are to be able to track and target US high-value assets at the time and place of their choosing,” Mastalir said.

China’s strategy, known as Anti-Access/Area Denial, or A2AD, is centered on preventing US forces from accessing international waters extending hundreds or thousands of miles from mainland China. Some of the islands occupied by China within the last 15 years are closer to the Philippines, another treaty ally, than to China itself.

The A2AD strategy first “extended to the first island chain (bounded by the Philippines), and now the second island chain (extending to the US territory of Guam), and eventually all the way to the West Coast of California,” Mastalir said.

US officials say China has based anti-ship, anti-air, and anti-ballistic weapons in the region, and many of these systems rely on satellite tracking and targeting. Mastalir said his priority at Indo-Pacific Command, headquartered in Hawaii, is to defend US and allied satellites, or “blue assets,” and challenge “red assets” to break the Chinese military’s “long-range kill chains and protect the joint force from space-enabled attack.”

What this means is the Space Force wants to have the ability to disable or destroy the satellites China would use to provide communication, command, tracking, navigation, or surveillance support during an attack against the US or its allies.

Buildings and structures are seen on October 25, 2022, on an artificial island built by China on Subi Reef in the Spratly Islands of the South China Sea. China has progressively asserted its claim of ownership over disputed islands in the region. Credit: Ezra Acayan/Getty Images

Mastalir said he believes China’s space-based capabilities are “sufficient” to achieve the country’s military ambitions, whatever they are. “The sophistication of their sensors is certainly continuing to increase—the interconnectedness, the interoperability. They’re a pacing challenge for a reason,” he said.

“We’re seeing all signs point to being able to target US aircraft carriers… high-value assets in the air like tankers, AWACS (Airborne Warning And Control System),” Mastalir said. “This is a strategy to keep the US from intervening, and that’s what their space architecture is.”

That’s not acceptable to Pentagon officials, so Space Force personnel are now training for orbital warfare. Just don’t expect to know the specifics of any of these weapons systems any time soon.

“The details of that? No, you’re not going to get that from any war-fighting organization—’let me tell you precisely how I intend to attack an adversary so that they can respond and counter that’—those aren’t discussions we’re going to have,” Saltzman said. “We’re still going to protect some of those (details), but broadly, from an operational concept, we are going to be ready to contest space.”

A new administration

The Space Force will likely receive new policy directives after President-elect Donald Trump takes office in January. The Trump transition team hasn’t identified any changes coming for the Space Force, but a list of policy proposals known as Project 2025 may offer some clues.

Published by the Heritage Foundation, a conservative think tank, Project 2025 calls for the Pentagon to pivot the Space Force from a mostly defensive posture toward offensive weapons systems. Christopher Miller, who served as acting secretary of defense in the first Trump administration, authored the military section of Project 2025.

Miller wrote that the Space Force should “reestablish offensive capabilities to guarantee a favorable balance of forces, efficiently manage the full deterrence spectrum, and seriously complicate enemy calculations of a successful first strike against US space assets.”

Trump disavowed Project 2025 during the campaign, but since the election, he has nominated several of the policy agenda’s authors and contributors to key administration posts.

Saltzman met with Trump last month while attending a launch of SpaceX’s Starship rocket in Texas, but he said the encounter was incidental. Saltzman was already there for discussions with SpaceX officials, and Trump’s travel plans only became known the day before the launch.

The conversation with Trump at the Starship launch didn’t touch on any policy details, according to Saltzman. He added that the Space Force hasn’t yet had any formal discussions with the Trump transition team.

Regardless of the direction Trump takes with the Space Force, Saltzman said the service is already thinking about what to do to maintain what the Pentagon now calls “space superiority”—a twist on the term air superiority, which might have seemed equally as fanciful at the dawn of military aviation more than a century ago.

“That’s the reason we’re the Space Force,” Saltzman said. “So administration to administration, that’s still going to be true. Now, it’s just about resourcing and the discussions about what we want to do and when we want to do it, and we’re ready to have those discussions.”

The US military is now talking openly about going on the attack in space Read More »

2025-lamborghini-urus-se-first-drive:-the-total-taurean-package

2025 Lamborghini Urus SE first drive: The total taurean package


A 789-horsepower Goldilocks moment

Adding electric power and a battery turns the Urus from hit-or-miss to just right.

The original Urus was an SUV that nobody particularly wanted, even if the market was demanding it. With luxury manufacturers tripping over themselves to capitalize on a seemingly limitless demand for taller all-around machines, Lamborghini was a little late to the party.

The resulting SUV has done its job, boosting Lamborghini’s sales and making up more than half of the company’s volume last year. Even so, the first attempt was just a bit tame. That most aggressive of supercar manufacturers produced an SUV featuring the air of the company’s lower, more outrageous performance machines, but it didn’t quite deliver the level of prestige that its price demanded.

The Urus Performante changed that, adding enough visual and driving personality to make itself a legitimately exciting machine to drive or to look at. Along the way, though, it lost a bit of the most crucial aspect of an SUV: everyday livability. On paper, the Urus SE is just a plug-in version of the Urus, with a big battery adding some emissions-free range. In reality, it’s an SUV with more performance and more flexibility, too. This is the Urus’ Goldilocks moment.

the front half of an orange Lamborghini Urus

If you’re looking for something subtle, you shouldn’t be looking at an Urus. Credit: Tim Stevens

The what

The Urus SE starts with the same basic platform as the other models in the line, including a 4.0 L turbocharged V8 that drives all four wheels through an eight-speed automatic and an all-wheel-drive system.

All that has received a strong dose of electrification, starting with a 25.9 kWh battery pack sitting far out back that helps to offset the otherwise nose-heavy SUV while also adding a playful bit of inertia to its tail. More on that in a moment.

That battery powers a 189 hp (141 kW) permanent-magnet synchronous electric motor fitted between the V8 and its transmission. The positioning means it has full access to all eight speeds and can drive the car at up to 81 mph (130 km/h). That, plus a Lamborghini-estimated 37 miles (60 km) of range, means this is a large SUV that could feasibly cover a lot of people’s commutes emissions-free.

Lamborghini urus engine bay

The V8 lives here. Credit: Tim Stevens

But when that electric motor’s power is paired with the 4.0 V8, the result is 789 hp (588 kW) total system power delivered to all four wheels. And with the electric torque coming on strong and early, it not only adds shove but throttle response, too.

Other updates

At a glance, the Urus SE looks more or less the same as the earlier renditions of the same SUV. Look closer, though, and you’ll spot several subtle changes, including a hood that eases more gently into the front fenders and a new spoiler out back that Lamborghini says boosts rear downforce by 35 percent over the Urus S.

Far and away the most striking part of the car, though, are the 22-inch wheels wrapped around carbon-ceramic brakes. They give this thing the look of a rolling caricature of a sport SUV in the best way possible. On the body of the machine itself, you’ll want to choose a properly eye-catching color, like the Arancio Egon you see here. I’ve been lucky to drive some pretty special SUVs over the years, and none have turned heads like this one did when cruising silently through a series of small Italian towns.

Things are far more same-y on the inside. At first blush, nothing has changed inside the Urus SE, and that’s OK. You have a few new hues of Technicolor hides to choose from—the car you see here is outfitted in a similarly pungent orange to its exterior color, making it a citrus dream through and through. The sports seats aren’t overly aggressive, offering more comfort than squeeze, but I’d say that’s just perfect.

Buttons and touchscreens vie with less conventional controls inside the Urus. Tim Stevens

But that’s all much the same as prior Urus versions. The central infotainment screen is slightly larger at 12.3 inches, and the software is lightly refreshed, but it’s the same Audi-based system as before. A light skinning full of hexagons makes it look and feel a little more at home in a car with a golden bull on the nose.

Unfortunately, while the car is quicker than the original model, the software isn’t. The overall experience is somewhat sluggish, especially when moving through the navigation system. Even the regen meter on the digital gauge cluster doesn’t change until a good half-second after you’ve pressed the brake pedal, an unfortunate place for lag.

The Urus SE offers six drive modes: Strada (street), Sport, Corsa (track), Sabbia (sand), Terra (dirt), and Neve (snow). There’s also a seventh, customizable Ego mode. As on earlier Urus models, these modes must be selected in that sequence. So if you want to go from Sport back to Strada, you need to cycle the mode selector knob five times—or go digging two submenus deep on the touchscreen.

Those can be further customized via a few buttons added beneath the secondary drive mode lever on the right. The top button enables standard Hybrid mode, where the gasoline and electric powertrains work together as harmoniously as possible for normal driving. The second button enters Recharge mode, which instructs the car to prioritize battery charge. The third and lowest button enters Performance mode, which gives you maximum performance from the hybrid system at the expense of charge.

Finally, a quick tug on the mode selector on the right drops the Urus into EV Drive.

Silent running

I started my time in the Urus SE driving into the middle of town, which was full of narrow streets, pedestrian-friendly speed limits, and aggressively piloted Fiats. Slow and steady is the safest way in these situations, so I was happy to sample the Urus’ all-electric mode.

To put it simply, it delivers. There’s virtually no noise from the drivetrain, a near-silent experience at lower speeds that help assuage the stress such situations can cause. The experience was somewhat spoiled by some tire noise, but I’ll blame that on the Pirelli Scorpion Winter 2 tires outfitted here. I can’t, however, blame the tires for a few annoying creaks and rattles, which isn’t exactly what I’d expect from an SUV at this price point.

Though there isn’t much power at your disposal in this mode, the Urus can still scoot away from lights and stop signs quickly and easily, even ducking through small gaps in tiny roundabouts.

Lamborghini Urus cargo area

It might not be subtle, but it can be practical. Credit: Tim Stevens

Dip more than three-quarters of the way into the throttle, though, and that V8 fires up and quickly joins the fun. The hand-off here can be a little less than subtle as power output surges quickly, but in a moment, the car goes from a wheezy EV to a roaring Lamborghini. And unlike a lot of plug-ins that stubbornly refuse to shut their engines off again when this happens, another quick pull of the EV lever silences the thing.

When I finally got out of town, I shifted over to Strada mode, the default mode for the Urus. I found this mode a little too lazy for my tastes, as it was reluctant to shift down unless I dipped far into the throttle, resulting in a bucking bull of acceleration when the eight-speed automatic finally complied.

The car only really came alive when I put it into Sport mode and above.

Shifting to Sport

Any hesitation or reluctance to shift is quickly obliterated as soon as you tug the drive mode lever into Sport. The SUV immediately forgets all about trying to be efficient, dropping a gear or two and making sure you’re never far from the power band, keeping the turbo lag from the V8 to a minimum.

The tachometer gets some red highlights in this mode, but you won’t need to look at it. There’s plenty of sound from the exhaust, augmented by some digital engine notes I found to be more distracting and unnecessary than anything. Most importantly, the overall feel of the car changes dramatically. It leaps forward with the slightest provocation of the right pedal, really challenging the grip of the tires.

In my first proper sampling of the full travel of that throttle pedal, I was surprised at how quickly this latest Urus got frisky, kicking its tail out with an eager wag on a slight bend to the right. It wasn’t scary, but it was just lively enough to make me smile and feel like I was something more than a passenger in a hyper-advanced, half-electric SUV.

Credit: Tim Stevens

In other words, it felt like a Lamborghini, an impression only reinforced as I dropped the SUV down to Corsa mode and really let it fly. The transmission is incredibly eager to drop gears on the slightest bit of deceleration, enough so that I rarely felt the need to reach for the column-mounted shift paddles.

But despite the eagerness, the suspension remained compliant and everyday-livable in every mode. I could certainly feel the (many) imperfections in the rural Italian roads more when the standard air suspension was dialed over to its stiffest, but even then, it was never punishing. And in the softest setting, the SUV was perfectly comfortable despite those 22-inch wheels and tires.

I didn’t get a chance to sample the SUV’s off-road prowess, but the SE carries a torque-vectoring rear differential like the Performante, which should mean it will be as eager to turn and drift on loose surfaces as that other, racier Urus.

Both the Urus Performante and the SE start at a bit over $260,000, which means choosing between the two isn’t a decision to be made on price alone. Personally, I’d much prefer the SE. It offers plenty of the charm and excitement of the Performante mixed with even better everyday capability than the Urus S. This one’s just right.

2025 Lamborghini Urus SE first drive: The total taurean package Read More »

indiana-jones-and-the-great-circle-is-pitch-perfect-archaeological-adventuring

Indiana Jones and the Great Circle is pitch-perfect archaeological adventuring


Review: Amazing open-world environs round out a tight, fun-filled adventure story.

No need to put Harrison Ford through the de-aging filter here! Credit: Bethesda / MachineGames

No need to put Harrison Ford through the de-aging filter here! Credit: Bethesda / MachineGames

Historically, games based on popular film or TV franchises have generally been seen as cheap cash-ins, slapping familiar characters and settings on a shovelware clone of a popular genre and counting on the license to sell enough copies to devoted fans. Indiana Jones and the Great Circle clearly has grander ambitions than that, putting a AAA budget behind a unique open-world exploration game built around stealth, melee combat, and puzzle solving.

Building such a game on top of such well-loved source material comes with plenty of challenges. The developers at MachineGames need to pay homage to the source material without resorting to the kind of slavish devotion that amounts to a mere retread of a familiar story. At the same time, any new Indy adventure carries with it the weight not just of the character’s many film and TV appearances but also well-remembered games like Indiana Jones and the Fate of Atlantis. Then there are game franchises like Tomb Raider and Uncharted, which have already put their own significant stamps on the Indiana Jones formula of action-packed, devil-may-care treasure-hunting.

No, this is not a scene from a new Uncharted game. Credit: Bethesda / MachineGames

Surprisingly, Indiana Jones and the Great Circle bears all this pressure pretty well. While the stealth-exploration gameplay and simplistic puzzles can feel a bit trite at points, the game’s excellent presentation, top-notch world-building, and fun-filled, campy storyline drive one of Indy’s most memorable adventures since the original movie trilogy.

A fun-filled adventure

The year is 1937, and Indiana Jones has already Raided a Lost Ark but has yet to investigate the Last Crusade. After a short introductory flashback that retells an interactive version of Raiders of the Lost Ark‘s famous golden idol extraction, Professor Jones gets unexpectedly drawn away from preparations for midterms when a giant of a man breaks into Marshall College’s antiquities wing and steals a lone mummified cat.

Investigating that theft takes Jones on a globetrotting tour of locations along “The Great Circle,” a ring of archaeologically significant sites around the world that house ancient artifacts rumored to hold great and mysterious power. Those rumors have attracted the attention of the Nazis (who else would you expect?), dragging Indy into a race to secure the artifacts before they threaten to alter the course of an impending world war.

You see a whip, I see a grappling hook. Credit: Bethesda / MachineGames

The game’s overarching narrative—told mainly through lengthy cut scenes that serve as the most captivating reward for in-game achievements—does a pitch-perfect job of replicating the campy, madcap, fun-filled, adventurous tone Indy is known for. The writing is full of all the pithy one-liners and cheesy puns you could hope for, as well as countless overt and subtle references to Indy movie moments that will be familiar to even casual fans.

Indy here is his usual mix of archaeological superhero and bumbling everyman. One moment, he’s using his whip and some hard-to-believe upper body strength to jump around some quickly crumbling ruins. The next, he’s avoiding death during a madcap fight scene through a combination of sheer dumb luck and overconfident opposition. The next, he’s solving ancient riddles with reams of historical techno-babble and showing a downright supernatural ability to decipher long-dead languages in an instant when the plot demands it.

You have to admit it, this circle is pretty great! Credit: Bethesda / MachineGames

It all works in large part thanks to Troy Baker’s excellent vocal performance as Jones, which he somehow pulls off as a compelling cross between Harrison Ford and Jeff Goldblum. The music does some heavy lifting in setting the tone, too; it’s full of downright cinematic stirring horns and tension-packed strings that fade in and out perfectly in sync with the on-screen action. The game even shows some great restraint in its sparing use of the famous Indiana Jones theme, which I ended up humming to myself as I played more often than I actually heard it referenced in the game’s score.

Indy quips well off of Gina, a roving reporter searching for her missing sister who serves as the obligatory love interest/globetrotting exploration partner. But the game’s best scenes all involve Emmerich Voss, the Nazi archaeologist antagonist who makes an absolute meal out of his scenery chewing. From his obsession with cranial shapes to his preening diatribes about the inferiority of American culture, Voss makes the perfect foil for Indy’s no-nonsense, homespun apple pie forthrightness.

Voss steals literally every scene he’s in. Credit: Bethesda / MachineGames

By the time the plot descends into an inevitable mess of pseudo-religious magical mysticism, it’s clear that this is a story that doesn’t take itself too seriously. You may cringe a bit at how over the top it all gets, but you’ll probably be having too much fun to care.

Take a look around

In between the cut scenes—which together could form the basis for a strong Indiana Jones-themed episodic streaming miniseries—there’s an actual interactive game to play here as well. That game primarily plays out across three decently sized maps—one urban, one desert, and one water-logged marsh—that you can explore relatively freely, broken up by shorter, more linear interludes in between.

Following the main story quests in each of these locales generally has you zigzagging across the map through a series of glorified fetch quests. Go to location A to collect some mystical doodad, then return it to unlock some fun exposition and a reason to go to location B. Repeat as necessary.

I say “point A” there, but it’s usually more accurate to say the game points you toward “circle A” on the map. Once you get there, you often have to do a bit of unguided exploring to find the hidden trinket or secret entry point you need.

Am I going in the right direction? Credit: Bethesda / MachineGames

At their best, these exploration bits made me feel more like an archaeological detective than the usual in-game tourist blindly following a waypoint from location to location. At its worst, I spent 15 minutes searching through one of these map circles before finding my in-game partner Gina standing right next to the target I was probably intended to find immediately. So it goes.

Traipsing across the map in this way slowly reveals the sizable scale of the game’s environments, which often extend beyond what’s first apparent on the map to multi-floor buildings and gigantic subterranean caverns. Unlocking and/or figuring out all of the best paths through these labyrinthine locales—which can involve climbing across rooftops or crawling through enemy barracks—is often half the fun.

As you crisscross the map, you also invariably stumble on a seemingly endless array of optional sidequests, mysteries, and “fieldwork,” which you keep track of in a dynamically updated journal. While there’s an attempt at a plot justification for each of these optional fetch quests, the ones I tried ended up being much less compelling than the main plot, which seems to have taken most of the writers’ attention.

Indiana Jones, famous Vatican tourist. Credit: Bethesda / MachineGames

As you explore, a tiny icon in the corner of the screen will also alert you to photo opportunities, which can unlock important bits of lore or context for puzzles. I thoroughly enjoyed these quick excuses to appreciate the game’s well-designed architecture and environments, even as it made Indy feel a bit more like a random tourist than a badass archaeologist hero.

Quick, hide!

Unfortunately, your ability to freely explore The Great Circle‘s environments is often hampered by large groups of roaming Nazi and/or fascist soldiers. Sometimes, you can put on a disguise to walk among them unseen, but even then, certain enemies can pick you out of the crowd, something that was not clear to me until I had already been plucked out of obscurity more than a few times.

When undisguised, you’ll spend a lot of time kneeling and sneaking silently just outside the soldiers’ vision cones or patiently waiting for them to move so you can sneak through a newly safe path. Remaining unseen also lets you silently take out enemies from behind, which includes pushing unsuspected enemy sentries off of ledges in a hilarious move that never, ever gets old.

They’ll never find me up here. Credit: Bethesda / MachineGames

When your sneaking skills fail you amid a large group of enemies, the best and easiest thing to do is immediately run and hide. For the most part, the enemies are incredibly inept in their inevitable pursuit; dodge around a couple of corners and hide in a dark alley and they’ll usually quickly lose track of you. While I appreciated that being spotted wasn’t an instant death sentence, the ease with which I could outsmart these soldiers made the sneaking a lot less tense.

If you get spotted by a group of just one or two enemy soldiers, though, it’s time for some first-person melee combat, which draws heavy inspiration from the developers’ previous work on the early ’00s Chronicles of Riddick games. These fights usually play out like the world’s most overdesigned game of Punch-Out!!—you stand there waiting for a heavily telegraphed punch to come in, at which point you throw up a quick block or dodge and then counter with a series of rapid, crunchy punches of your own. Repeat until the enemy goes down.

You can spice things up a bit here by disarming and/or unbalancing your foes with your whip or by grabbing a wide variety of nearby objects to use as improvised melee weapons. After a while, though, all the fistfights start to feel pretty rote and unmemorable. The first time you hit a Nazi upside the head with a plunger is hilarious. The fifth time is a bit tiresome.

It’s always a good time to punch a Nazi. Credit: Bethesda / MachineGames

While you can also pull out a trusty revolver to simply shoot your foes, the racket the shots make usually leads to so much unwelcome enemy attention that it’s rarely worth the trouble. Aside from a handful of obligatory sections where the game practically forces you into a shooting gallery situation, I found little need to engage in the serviceable but unexciting gun combat.

And while The Great Circle is far from a horror game, there are a few combat moments of genuine terror with foes more formidable than the average grunt. I don’t want to give away too much, but those with fear of underwater creatures, the dark, or confined spaces will find some parts of the game incredibly tense.

Not so puzzling

My favorite gameplay moments in The Great Circle were the extended sections where I didn’t have to worry about stealth or combat and could just focus on exploring massive underground ruins. These feature some of the game’s most interesting traversal challenges, where looking around and figuring out just how to make it to the next objective is engaging on its own terms. There’s little of the Uncharted-style gameplay of practically highlighting every handhold and jump with a flashing red sign.

When giant mechanical gears need placing, you know who to call! Credit: Bethesda / MachineGames

These exploratory bits are broken up by some obligatory puzzles, usually involving Indiana Jones’ trademark of unbelievably intricate ancient stone machinery. Arrange the giant stone gears so the door opens, put the right relic in the right spot, shine a light on some emblems with a few mirrors, and so on. You know the drill if you’ve played any number of similar action-adventure games, and you probably won’t be all that engaged if you know how to perform some basic logic and exploration (though snapping pictures with the in-game camera offers hints for those who get unexpectedly stuck).

But even during the least engaging puzzles or humdrum fights in The Great Circle, I was compelled forward by the promise of some intricate ruin or pithy cut scene quip to come. Like the best Indiana Jones movies, there’s a propulsive force to the game’s most exciting scenes that helps you push past any brief feelings of tedium in between. Here’s hoping we see a lot more of this version of Indiana Jones in the future.

A note on performance

Indiana Jones and the Great Circle has received some recent negative attention for having relatively beefy system requirements, including calling for GPUs that have some form of real-time ray-tracing acceleration. We tested the game on a system with an Nvidia RTX 2080 Ti and an Intel i7-8700K CPU with 32 GB of RAM, which puts it roughly between the “minimum” and “recommended” specs suggested by the publisher.

Trace those rays. Credit: Bethesda / MachineGames

Despite this, we were able to run the game at 1440p resolution and “High” graphical settings at a steady 60 fps throughout. The game did occassionally suffer some heavy frame stuttering when loading new scenes, and far-off background elements had a tendency to noticeably “pop in” when running, but otherwise, we had few complaints about the graphical performance.

Photo of Kyle Orland

Kyle Orland has been the Senior Gaming Editor at Ars Technica since 2012, writing primarily about the business, tech, and culture behind video games. He has journalism and computer science degrees from University of Maryland. He once wrote a whole book about Minesweeper.

Indiana Jones and the Great Circle is pitch-perfect archaeological adventuring Read More »

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How did the CEO of an online payments firm become the nominee to lead NASA?


Expect significant changes for America’s space agency.

A young man smiles while sitting amidst machinery.

Jared Isaacman at SpaceX Headquarters in Hawthorne, California. Credit: SpaceX

Jared Isaacman at SpaceX Headquarters in Hawthorne, California. Credit: SpaceX

President-elect Donald Trump announced Wednesday his intent to nominate entrepreneur and commercial astronaut Jared Isaacman as the next administrator of NASA.

For those unfamiliar with Isaacman, who at just 16 years old founded a payment processing company in his parents’ basement that ultimately became a major player in online payments, it may seem an odd choice. However, those inside the space community welcomed the news, with figures across the political spectrum hailing Isaacman’s nomination variously as “terrific,” “ideal,” and “inspiring.”

This statement from Isaac Arthur, president of the National Space Society, is characteristic of the response: “Jared is a remarkable individual and a perfect pick for NASA Administrator. He brings a wealth of experience in entrepreneurial enterprise as well as unique knowledge in working with both NASA and SpaceX, a perfect combination as we enter a new era of increased cooperation between NASA and commercial spaceflight.”

So who is Jared Isaacman? Why is his nomination being welcomed in most quarters of the spaceflight community? And how might he shake up NASA? Read on.

Meet Jared

Isaacman is now 41 years old, about half the age of current NASA Administrator Bill Nelson. He has founded a couple of companies, including the publicly traded Shift4 (look at the number 4 on a keyboard to understand the meaning of the name), as well as Draken International, a company that trained pilots of the US Air Force.

Throughout his career, Isaacman has shown a passion for flying and adventure. About five years ago, he decided he wanted to fly into space and bought the first commercial mission on a SpaceX Dragon spacecraft. But this was no joy ride. Some of his friends assumed Isaacman would invite them along. Instead, he brought a cancer survivor, a science educator, and a raffle winner. As part of the flight, this Inspiration4 mission raised hundreds of millions of dollars for research into childhood cancer.

After this mission, Isaacman set about a more ambitious project he named Polaris. The nominal plan was to fly two additional missions on Dragon and then become the first person to fly on SpaceX’s Starship. He flew the first of these missions, Polaris Dawn, in September. He brought along a pilot, Scott “Kidd” Poteet, and two SpaceX engineers, Anna Menon and Sarah Gillis. They were the first SpaceX employees to ever fly into orbit.

The mission was characteristic of Isaacman’s goal to expand the horizon of what is possible for humans in space. Polaris Dawn flew to an altitude of 1,408.1 km on the first day, the highest Earth-orbit mission ever flown and the farthest humans have traveled from our planet since Apollo. On the third day of the flight, the four crew members donned spacesuits designed and developed by SpaceX within the last two years. After venting the cabin’s atmosphere into space, first Isaacman and then Gillis spent several minutes extending their bodies out of the Dragon spacecraft.

This was the first private spacewalk in history and underscored Isaacman’s commitment to accelerating the transition of spaceflight as rare and government-driven to more publicly accessible.

Why does the space community welcome him?

In the last five years, Isaacman has impressed most of those within the spaceflight community he has interacted with. He has taken his responsibilities seriously, training hard for his Dragon missions and using NASA facilities such as a pressure chamber at NASA’s Johnson Space Center when appropriate.

Through these interactions—based upon my interviews with many people—Isaacman has demonstrated that he is not a billionaire seeking a joyride but someone who wants to change spaceflight for the better. In his spaceflights, he has also demonstrated himself to be a thoughtful and careful leader.

Two examples illustrate this. The ride to space aboard a Crew Dragon vehicle is dynamic, with the passengers pulling in excess of 3 Gs during the initial ascent, the abrupt cutoff of the main Falcon 9 rocket’s engines, stage separation, and then the grinding thrust of the upper stage engines just behind the capsule. In interviews, each of the Polaris Dawn crew members remarked about how Isaacman calmly called out these milestones in advance, with a few words about what to expect. It had a calming, reassuring effect and demonstrated that his crew’s health and safety were foremost among his concerns.

Another way in which Isaacman shows care for his crew and families is through an annual event called “Fighter Jet Training.” Cognizant of the time crew members spend away from their families training, he invites them and SpaceX employees who have supported his flights to an airstrip in Montana. Over the course of two days, family members get to ride in jets, go on a zero-gravity flight, and participate in other fun activities to get a taste of what flying on the edge is like. Isaacman underwrites all of this as a way of thanking all who are helping him.

The bottom line is that Isaacman, through his actions and words, appears to be a caring person who wants the US spaceflight enterprise to advance to greater heights.

Why would Isaacman want the job?

So why would a billionaire who has been to space twice (and plans to go at least two more times) want to run a federal agency? I have not asked Isaacman this question directly, but in interviews over the years, he has made it clear that he is passionate about spaceflight and views his role as a facilitator desiring to move things forward.

Most likely, he has accepted the job because he wants to modernize NASA and put the space agency in the best position to succeed in the future. NASA is no longer the youthful agency that took the United States to the Moon during the Apollo program. That was more than half a century ago, and while NASA is still capable of great things, it is living with one foot in the past and beholden to large, traditional contractors.

The space agency has a budget of about $25 billion, and no one could credibly argue that all of those dollars are spent efficiently. Several major programs at NASA were created by Congress with the intent of ensuring maximum dollars flowed to certain states and districts. It seems likely that Isaacman and the Trump administration will take a whack at some of these sacred cows.

High on the list is the Space Launch System rocket, which Congress created more than a dozen years ago. The rocket, and its ground systems, have been a testament to the waste inherent in large government programs funded by cost-plus contracts. NASA’s current administrator, Nelson, had a hand in creating this SLS rocket. Even he has decried the effect of this type of contracting as a “plague” on the space agency.

Currently, NASA plans to use the SLS rocket as the means of launching four astronauts inside the Orion spacecraft to lunar orbit. There, they will rendezvous with SpaceX’s Starship vehicle, go down to the Moon for a few days, and then come back to Orion. The spacecraft will then return to Earth.

So long, SLS?

Multiple sources have told Ars that the SLS rocket—which has long had staunch backing from Congress—is now on the chopping block. No final decisions have been made, but a tentative deal is in place with lawmakers to end the rocket in exchange for moving US Space Command to Huntsville, Alabama.

So how would NASA astronauts get to the Moon without the SLS rocket? Nothing is final, and the trade space is open. One possible scenario being discussed for future Artemis missions is to launch the Orion spacecraft on a New Glenn rocket into low-Earth orbit. There, it could dock with a Centaur upper stage that would launch on a Vulcan rocket. This Centaur stage would then boost Orion toward lunar orbit.

NASA’s Space Launch System rocket is seen on the launch pad at Kennedy Space Center in April 2022.

Credit: Trevor Mahlmann

NASA’s Space Launch System rocket is seen on the launch pad at Kennedy Space Center in April 2022. Credit: Trevor Mahlmann

Such a scenario is elegant because it uses rockets that would cost a fraction of the SLS and also includes all key contractors currently involved in the Artemis program, with the exception of Boeing, which would lose out financially. (Northrop Grumman will still make solids for Vulcan, and Aerojet Rocketdyne will make the RL-10 upper stage engines for that rocket.)

As part of the Artemis program, NASA is competing with China to not only launch astronauts to the south pole of the Moon but also to develop a sustainable base of operations there. While there is considerable interest in Mars, sources told Ars that the focus of the space agency is likely to remain on a program that goes to the Moon first and then develops plans for Mars.

This competition is not one between Elon Musk, who founded SpaceX, and Jeff Bezos, who founded Blue Origin. Rather, they are both seen as players on the US team. The Trump administration seems to view entrepreneurial spirit as the key advantage the United States has over China in its competition with China. This op-ed in Space News offers a good overview of this sentiment.

So whither NASA? Under the Trump administration, NASA’s role is likely to focus on stimulating the efforts by commercial space entrepreneurs. Isaacman’s marching orders for NASA will almost certainly be two words: results and speed. NASA, they believe, should transition to become more like its roots in the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, which undertook, promoted, and institutionalized aeronautical research—but now for space.

It is not easy to turn a big bureaucracy, and there will undoubtedly be friction and pain points. But the opportunity here is enticing: NASA should not be competing with things that private industry is already doing better, such as launching big rockets. Rather, it should find difficult research and development projects at the edge of the possible. This will certainly be Isaacman’s most challenging mission yet.

Photo of Eric Berger

Eric Berger is the senior space editor at Ars Technica, covering everything from astronomy to private space to NASA policy, and author of two books: Liftoff, about the rise of SpaceX; and Reentry, on the development of the Falcon 9 rocket and Dragon. A certified meteorologist, Eric lives in Houston.

How did the CEO of an online payments firm become the nominee to lead NASA? Read More »

flour,-water,-salt,-github:-the-bread-code-is-a-sourdough-baking-framework

Flour, water, salt, GitHub: The Bread Code is a sourdough baking framework

One year ago, I didn’t know how to bake bread. I just knew how to follow a recipe.

If everything went perfectly, I could turn out something plain but palatable. But should anything change—temperature, timing, flour, Mercury being in Scorpio—I’d turn out a partly poofy pancake. I presented my partly poofy pancakes to people, and they were polite, but those platters were not particularly palatable.

During a group vacation last year, a friend made fresh sourdough loaves every day, and we devoured it. He gladly shared his knowledge, his starter, and his go-to recipe. I took it home, tried it out, and made a naturally leavened, artisanal pancake.

I took my confusion to YouTube, where I found Hendrik Kleinwächter’s “The Bread Code” channel and his video promising a course on “Your First Sourdough Bread.” I watched and learned a lot, but I couldn’t quite translate 30 minutes of intensive couch time to hours of mixing, raising, slicing, and baking. Pancakes, part three.

It felt like there had to be more to this. And there was—a whole GitHub repository more.

The Bread Code gave Kleinwächter a gratifying second career, and it’s given me bread I’m eager to serve people. This week alone, I’m making sourdough Parker House rolls, a rosemary olive loaf for Friendsgiving, and then a za’atar flatbread and standard wheat loaf for actual Thanksgiving. And each of us has learned more about perhaps the most important aspect of coding, bread, teaching, and lots of other things: patience.

Hendrik Kleinwächter on his Bread Code channel, explaining his book.

Resources, not recipes

The Bread Code is centered around a book, The Sourdough Framework. It’s an open source codebase that self-compiles into new LaTeX book editions and is free to read online. It has one real bread loaf recipe, if you can call a 68-page middle-section journey a recipe. It has 17 flowcharts, 15 tables, and dozens of timelines, process illustrations, and photos of sourdough going both well and terribly. Like any cookbook, there’s a bit about Kleinwächter’s history with this food, and some sourdough bread history. Then the reader is dropped straight into “How Sourdough Works,” which is in no way a summary.

“To understand the many enzymatic reactions that take place when flour and water are mixed, we must first understand seeds and their role in the lifecycle of wheat and other grains,” Kleinwächter writes. From there, we follow a seed through hibernation, germination, photosynthesis, and, through humans’ grinding of these seeds, exposure to amylase and protease enzymes.

I had arrived at this book with these specific loaf problems to address. But first, it asks me to consider, “What is wheat?” This sparked vivid memories of Computer Science 114, in which a professor, asked to troubleshoot misbehaving code, would instead tell students to “Think like a compiler,” or “Consider the recursive way to do it.”

And yet, “What is wheat” did help. Having a sense of what was happening inside my starter, and my dough (which is really just a big, slow starter), helped me diagnose what was going right or wrong with my breads. Extra-sticky dough and tightly arrayed holes in the bread meant I had let the bacteria win out over the yeast. I learned when to be rough with the dough to form gluten and when to gently guide it into shape to preserve its gas-filled form.

I could eat a slice of each loaf and get a sense of how things had gone. The inputs, outputs, and errors could be ascertained and analyzed more easily than in my prior stance, which was, roughly, “This starter is cursed and so am I.” Using hydration percentages, measurements relative to protein content, a few tests, and troubleshooting steps, I could move closer to fresh, delicious bread. Framework: accomplished.

I have found myself very grateful lately that Kleinwächter did not find success with 30-minute YouTube tutorials. Strangely, so has he.

Sometimes weird scoring looks pretty neat. Kevin Purdy

The slow bread of childhood dreams

“I have had some successful startups; I have also had disastrous startups,” Kleinwächter said in an interview. “I have made some money, then I’ve been poor again. I’ve done so many things.”

Most of those things involve software. Kleinwächter is a German full-stack engineer, and he has founded firms and worked at companies related to blogging, e-commerce, food ordering, travel, and health. He tried to escape the boom-bust startup cycle by starting his own digital agency before one of his products was acquired by hotel booking firm Trivago. After that, he needed a break—and he could afford to take one.

“I went to Naples, worked there in a pizzeria for a week, and just figured out, ‘What do I want to do with my life?’ And I found my passion. My passion is to teach people how to make amazing bread and pizza at home,” Kleinwächter said.

Kleinwächter’s formative bread experiences—weekend loaves baked by his mother, awe-inspiring pizza from Italian ski towns, discovering all the extra ingredients in a supermarket’s version of the dark Schwarzbrot—made him want to bake his own. Like me, he started with recipes, and he wasted a lot of time and flour turning out stuff that produced both failures and a drive for knowledge. He dug in, learned as much as he could, and once he had his head around the how and why, he worked on a way to guide others along the path.

Bugs and syntax errors in baking

When using recipes, there’s a strong, societally reinforced idea that there is one best, tested, and timed way to arrive at a finished food. That’s why we have America’s Test Kitchen, The Food Lab, and all manner of blogs and videos promoting food “hacks.” I should know; I wrote up a whole bunch of them as a young Lifehacker writer. I’m still a fan of such things, from the standpoint of simply getting food done.

As such, the ultimate “hack” for making bread is to use commercial yeast, i.e., dried “active” or “instant” yeast. A manufacturer has done the work of selecting and isolating yeast at its prime state and preserving it for you. Get your liquids and dough to a yeast-friendly temperature and you’ve removed most of the variables; your success should be repeatable. If you just want bread, you can make the iconic no-knead bread with prepared yeast and very little intervention, and you’ll probably get bread that’s better than you can get at the grocery store.

Baking sourdough—or “naturally leavened,” or with “levain”—means a lot of intervention. You are cultivating and maintaining a small ecosystem of yeast and bacteria, unleashing them onto flour, water, and salt, and stepping in after they’ve produced enough flavor and lift—but before they eat all the stretchy gluten bonds. What that looks like depends on many things: your water, your flours, what you fed your starter, how active it was when you added it, the air in your home, and other variables. Most important is your ability to notice things over long periods of time.

When things go wrong, debugging can be tricky. I was able to personally ask Kleinwächter what was up with my bread, because I was interviewing him for this article. There were many potential answers, including:

  • I should recognize, first off, that I was trying to bake the hardest kind of bread: Freestanding wheat-based sourdough
  • You have to watch—and smell—your starter to make sure it has the right mix of yeast to bacteria before you use it
  • Using less starter (lower “inoculation”) would make it easier not to over-ferment
  • Eyeballing my dough rise in a bowl was hard; try measuring a sample in something like an aliquot tube
  • Winter and summer are very different dough timings, even with modern indoor climate control.

But I kept with it. I was particularly susceptible to wanting things to go quicker and demanding to see a huge rise in my dough before baking. This ironically leads to the flattest results, as the bacteria eats all the gluten bonds. When I slowed down, changed just one thing at a time, and looked deeper into my results, I got better.

Screenshot of Kleinwaechter's YouTube page, with video titles like

The Bread Code YouTube page and the ways in which one must cater to algorithms.

Credit: The Bread Code

The Bread Code YouTube page and the ways in which one must cater to algorithms. Credit: The Bread Code

YouTube faces and TikTok sausage

Emailing and trading video responses with Kleinwächter, I got the sense that he, too, has learned to go the slow, steady route with his Bread Code project.

For a while, he was turning out YouTube videos, and he wanted them to work. “I’m very data-driven and very analytical. I always read the video metrics, and I try to optimize my videos,” Kleinwächter said. “Which means I have to use a clickbait title, and I have to use a clickbait-y thumbnail, plus I need to make sure that I catch people in the first 30 seconds of the video.” This, however, is “not good for us as humans because it leads to more and more extreme content.”

Kleinwächter also dabbled in TikTok, making videos in which, leaning into his German heritage, “the idea was to turn everything into a sausage.” The metrics and imperatives on TikTok were similar to those on YouTube but hyperscaled. He could put hours or days into a video, only for 1 percent of his 200,000 YouTube subscribers to see it unless he caught the algorithm wind.

The frustrations inspired him to slow down and focus on his site and his book. With his community’s help, The Bread Code has just finished its second Kickstarter-backed printing run of 2,000 copies. There’s a Discord full of bread heads eager to diagnose and correct each other’s loaves and occasional pull requests from inspired readers. Kleinwächter has seen people go from buying what he calls “Turbo bread” at the store to making their own, and that’s what keeps him going. He’s not gambling on an attention-getting hit, but he’s in better control of how his knowledge and message get out.

“I think homemade bread is something that’s super, super undervalued, and I see a lot of benefits to making it yourself,” Kleinwächter said. “Good bread just contains flour, water, and salt—nothing else.”

Loaf that is split across the middle-top, with flecks of olives showing.

A test loaf of rosemary olive sourdough bread. An uneven amount of olive bits ended up on the top and bottom, because there is always more to learn.

Credit: Kevin Purdy

A test loaf of rosemary olive sourdough bread. An uneven amount of olive bits ended up on the top and bottom, because there is always more to learn. Credit: Kevin Purdy

You gotta keep doing it—that’s the hard part

I can’t say it has been entirely smooth sailing ever since I self-certified with The Bread Code framework. I know what level of fermentation I’m aiming for, but I sometimes get home from an outing later than planned, arriving at dough that’s trying to escape its bucket. My starter can be very temperamental when my house gets dry and chilly in the winter. And my dough slicing (scoring), being the very last step before baking, can be rushed, resulting in some loaves with weird “ears,” not quite ready for the bakery window.

But that’s all part of it. Your sourdough starter is a collection of organisms that are best suited to what you’ve fed them, developed over time, shaped by their environment. There are some modern hacks that can help make good bread, like using a pH meter. But the big hack is just doing it, learning from it, and getting better at figuring out what’s going on. I’m thankful that folks like Kleinwächter are out there encouraging folks like me to slow down, hack less, and learn more.

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are-any-of-apple’s-official-magsafe-accessories-worth-buying?

Are any of Apple’s official MagSafe accessories worth buying?


When MagSafe was introduced, it promised an accessories revolution. Meh.

Apple’s current lineup of MagSafe accessories. Credit: Samuel Axon

When Apple introduced what it currently calls MagSafe in 2020, its marketing messaging suggested that the magnetic attachment standard for the iPhone would produce a boom in innovation in accessories, making things possible that simply weren’t before.

Four years later, that hasn’t really happened—either from third-party accessory makers or Apple’s own lineup of branded MagSafe products.

Instead, we have a lineup of accessories that matches pretty much what was available at launch in 2020: chargers, cases, and just a couple more unusual applications.

With the launch of the iPhone 16 just behind us and the holidays just in front of us, a bunch of people are moving to phones that support MagSafe for the first time. Apple loves an upsell, so it offers some first-party MagSafe accessories—some useful, some not worth the cash, given the premiums it sometimes charges.

Given all that, it’s a good time to check in and quickly point out which (if any) of these first-party MagSafe accessories might be worth grabbing alongside that new iPhone and which ones you should skip in favor of third-party offerings.

Cases with MagSafe

Look, we could write thousands of words about the variety of iPhone cases available, or even just about those that support MagSafe to some degree or another—and we still wouldn’t really scratch the surface. (Unless that surface was made with Apple’s leather-replacement FineWoven material—hey-o!)

It’s safe to say there’s a third-party case for every need and every type of person out there. If you want one that meets your exact needs, you’ll be able to find it. Just know that cases that are labeled as MagSafe-ready will allow charge through and will let the magnets align correctly between a MagSafe charger and an iPhone—that’s really the whole point of the “MagSafe” name.

But if you prefer to stick with Apple’s own cases, there are currently two options: the clear cases and the silicone cases.

A clear iPhone case on a table

The clear case is definitely the superior of Apple’s two first-party MagSafe cases. Credit: Samuel Axon

The clear cases actually have a circle where the edges of the MagSafe magnets are, which is pretty nice for getting the magnets to snap without any futzing—though it’s really not necessary, since, well, magnets attract. They have a firm plastic shell that is likely to do a good job of protecting your phone when you drop it.

The Silicone case is… fine. Frankly, it’s ludicrously priced for what it is. It offers no advantages over a plethora of third-party cases that cost exactly half as much.

Recommendation: The clear case has its advantages, but the silicone case is awfully expensive for what it is. Generally, third party is the way to go. There are lots of third-party cases from manufacturers who got licensed by Apple, and you can generally trust those will work with wireless charging just fine. That was the whole point of the MagSafe branding, after all.

The MagSafe charger

At $39 or $49 (depending on length, one meter or two), these charging cables are pretty pricey. But they’re also highly durable, relatively efficient, and super easy to use. In most cases, you might as well just use any old USB-C cable.

There are some situations where you might prefer this option, though—for example, if you prop your iPhone up against your bedside lamp like a nightstand clock, or if you (like me) listen to audiobooks on wired earbuds while you fall asleep via the USB-C port, but you want to make sure the phone is still charging.

A charger with cable sits on a table

The MagSafe charger for the iPhone. Credit: Samuel Axon

So the answer on Apple’s MagSafe charger is that it’s pretty specialized, but it’s arguably the best option for those who have some specific reason not to just use USB-C.

Recommendation: Just use a USB-C cable, unless you have a specific reason to go this route—shoutout to my fellow individuals who listen to audiobooks while falling asleep but need headphones so as not to keep their spouse awake but prefer wired earbuds that use the USB-C port over AirPods to avoid losing AirPods in the bed covers. I’m sure there are dozens of us! If you do go this route, Apple’s own cable is the safest pick.

Apple’s FineWoven Wallet with MagSafe

While I’d long known people with dense wallet cases for their iPhones, I was excited about Apple’s leather (and later FineWoven) wallet with MagSafe when it was announced. I felt the wallet cases I’d seen were way too bulky, making the phone less pleasant to use.

Unfortunately, Apple’s FineWoven Wallet with MagSafe might be the worst official MagSafe product.

The problem is that the “durable microtwill” material that Apple went with instead of leather is prone to scratching, as many owners have complained. That’s a bit frustrating for something that costs nearly $60.

Apple's MagSafe wallet on a table

The MagSafe wallet has too many limitations to be worthwhile for most people. Credit: Samuel Axon

The wallet also only holds a few cards, and putting cards here means you probably can’t or at least shouldn’t try to use wireless charging, because the cards would be between the charger and the phone. Apple itself warns against doing this.

For those reasons, skip the FineWoven Wallet. There are lots of better-designed iPhone wallet cases out there, even though they might not be so minimalistic.

Recommendation: Skip this one. It’s a great idea in theory, but in practice and execution, it just doesn’t deliver. There are zillions of great wallet cases out there if you don’t mind a bit of bulk—just know you’ll have some wireless charging issues with many cases.

Other categories offered by third parties

Frankly, a lot of the more interesting applications of MagSafe for the iPhone are only available through third parties.

There are monitor mounts for using the iPhone as a webcam with Macs; bedside table stands for charging the phone while it acts as a smart display; magnetic phone stands for car dashboards that let you use GPS while you drive using MagSafe; magnetic versions for attaching power banks and portable batteries; and of course, multi-device chargers similar to the infamously canceled Airpower charging pad Apple had planned to release at one point. (I have the Belkin Boost Charge Pro 3-in-1 on my desk, and it works great.)

It’s not the revolution of new applications that some imagined when MagSafe was launched, but that’s not really a surprise. Still, there are some quality products out there. It’s both strange and a pity that Apple hasn’t made most of them itself.

No revolution here

Truthfully, MagSafe never seemed like it would be a huge smash. iPhones already supported Qi wireless charging before it came along, so the idea of magnets keeping the device aligned with the charger was always the main appeal—its existence potentially saved some users from ending up with chargers that didn’t quite work right with their phones, provided those users bought officially licensed MagSafe accessories.

Apple’s MagSafe accessories are often overpriced compared to alternatives from Belkin and other frequent partners. MagSafe seemed to do a better job bringing some standards to certain third-party products than it did bringing life to Apple’s offerings, and it certainly did not bring about a revolution of new accessory categories to the iPhone.

Still, it’s hard to blame anyone for choosing to go with Apple’s versions; the world of third-party accessories can be messy, and going the first-party route is generally a surefire way to know you’re not going to have many problems, even if the sticker’s a bit steep.

You could shop for third-party options, but sometimes you want a sure thing. With the possible exception of the FineWoven Wallet, all of these Apple-made MagSafe products are sure things.

Photo of Samuel Axon

Samuel Axon is a senior editor at Ars Technica. He covers Apple, software development, gaming, AI, entertainment, and mixed reality. He has been writing about gaming and technology for nearly two decades at Engadget, PC World, Mashable, Vice, Polygon, Wired, and others. He previously ran a marketing and PR agency in the gaming industry, led editorial for the TV network CBS, and worked on social media marketing strategy for Samsung Mobile at the creative agency SPCSHP. He also is an independent software and game developer for iOS, Windows, and other platforms, and he is a graduate of DePaul University, where he studied interactive media and software development.

Are any of Apple’s official MagSafe accessories worth buying? Read More »

how-physics-moves-from-wild-ideas-to-actual-experiments

How physics moves from wild ideas to actual experiments


Science often accommodates audacious proposals.

Instead of using antennas, could we wire up trees in a forest to detect neutrinos? Credit: Claire Gillo/PhotoPlus Magazine/Future via Getty Images

Neutrinos are some of nature’s most elusive particles. One hundred trillion fly through your body every second, but each one has only a tiny chance of jostling one of your atoms, a consequence of the incredible weakness of the weak nuclear force that governs neutrino interactions. That tiny chance means that reliably detecting neutrinos takes many more atoms than are in your body. To spot neutrinos colliding with atoms in the atmosphere, experiments have buried 1,000 tons of heavy water, woven cameras through a cubic kilometer of Antarctic ice, and planned to deploy 200,000 antennas.

In a field full of ambitious plans, a recent proposal by Steven Prohira, an assistant professor at the University of Kansas, is especially strange. Prohira suggests that instead of using antennas, we could detect the tell-tale signs of atmospheric neutrinos by wiring up a forest of trees. His suggestion may turn out to be impossible, but it could also be an important breakthrough. To find out which it is, he’ll need to walk a long path, refining prototypes and demonstrating his idea’s merits.

Prohira’s goal is to detect so-called ultra-high-energy neutrinos. Each one of these tiny particles carries more than fifty million times the energy released by uranium during nuclear fission. Their origins are not fully understood, but they are expected to be produced by some of the most powerful events in the Universe, from collapsing stars and pulsars to the volatile environments around the massive black holes at the centers of galaxies. If we could detect these particles more reliably, we could learn more about these extreme astronomical events.

Other experiments, like a project called GRAND, plan to build antennas to detect these neutrinos, watching for radio signals that come from their reactions with our atmosphere. However, finding places to place these antennas can be a challenge. Motivated by this experiment, Prohira dug up old studies by the US Army that suggested an alternative: instead of antennas, use trees. By wrapping a wire around each tree, army researchers found that the trees were sensitive to radio waves, which they hoped to use to receive radio signals in the jungle. Prohira argues that the same trick could be useful for neutrino detection.

Crackpot or legit science?

People suggest wacky ideas every day. Should we trust this one?

At first, you might be a bit suspicious. Prohira’s paper is cautious on the science but extremely optimistic in other ways. He describes the proposal as a way to help conserve the Earth’s forests and even suggests that “a forest detector could also motivate the large-scale reforesting of land, to grow a neutrino detector for future generations.”

Prohira is not a crackpot, though. He has a track record of research in detecting neutrinos via radio waves in more conventional experiments, and he even received an $800,000 MacArthur genius grant a few years ago to support his work.

More generally, studying particles from outer space often demands audacious proposals, especially ones that make use of the natural world. Professor Albrecht Karle works on the IceCube experiment, an array of cameras that detect neutrinos whizzing through a cubic kilometer of Antarctic ice.

“In astroparticle physics, where we often cannot build the entire experiment in a laboratory, we have to resort to nature to help us, to provide an environment that can be used to build a detector. For example, in many parts of astroparticle physics, we are using the atmosphere as a medium, or the ocean, or the ice, or we go deep underground because we need a shield because we cannot construct an artificial shield. There are even ideas to go into space for extremely energetic neutrinos, to build detectors on Jupiter’s moon Europa.”

Such uses of nature are common in the field. India’s GRAPES experiments were designed to measure muons, but they have to filter out anything that’s not a muon to do so. As Professor Sunil Gupta of the Tata Institute explained, the best way to do that was with dirt from a nearby hill.

“The only way we know you can make a muon detector work is by filtering out other radiation […] so what we decided is that we’ll make a civil structure, and we’ll dump three meters of soil on top of that, so those three meters of soil could act as a filter,” he said.

The long road to an experiment

While Prohira’s idea isn’t ridiculous, it’s still just an idea (and one among many). Prohira’s paper describing the idea was uploaded to arXiv.org, a pre-print server, in January. Physicists use pre-print servers to give access to their work before it’s submitted to a scientific journal. That gives other physicists time to comment on the work and suggest revisions. In the meantime, the journal will send the work out to a few selected reviewers, who are asked to judge both whether the paper is likely to be correct and whether it is of sufficient interest to the community.

At this stage, reviewers may find problems with Prohira’s idea. These may take the form of actual mistakes, such as if he made an error in his estimates of the sensitivity of the detector. But reviewers can also ask for more detail. For example, they could request a more extensive analysis of possible errors in measurements caused by the different shapes and sizes of the trees.

If Prohira’s idea makes it through to publication, the next step toward building an actual forest detector would be convincing the larger community. This kind of legwork often takes place at conferences. The International Cosmic Ray Conference is the biggest stage for the astroparticle community, with conferences every two years—the next is scheduled for 2025 in Geneva. Other more specialized conferences, like ARENA, focus specifically on attempts to detect radio waves from high-energy neutrinos. These conferences can offer an opportunity to get other scientists on board and start building a team.

That team will be crucial for the next step: testing prototypes. No matter how good an idea sounds in theory, some problems only arise during a real experiment.

An early version of the GRAPES experiment detected muons by the light they emit passing through tanks of water. To find how much water was needed, the researchers did tests, putting a detector on top of a tank and on the bottom and keeping track of how often both detectors triggered for different heights of water based on the muons that came through randomly from the atmosphere. After finding that the tanks of water would have to be too tall to fit in their underground facility, they had to find wavelength-shifting chemicals that would allow them to use shorter tanks and novel ways of dissolving these chemicals without eroding the aluminum of the tank walls.

“When you try to do something, you run into all kinds of funny challenges,” said Gupta.

The IceCube experiment has a long history of prototypes going back to early concepts that were only distantly related to the final project. The earliest, like the proposed DUMAND project in Hawaii, planned to put detectors in the ocean rather than ice. BDUNT was an intermediate stage, a project that used the depths of Lake Baikal to detect atmospheric neutrinos. While the detectors were still in liquid water, the ability to drive on the lake’s frozen surface made BDUNT’s construction easier.

In a 1988 conference, Robert March, Francis Halzen, and John G. Learned envisioned a kind of “solid state DUMAND” that would use ice instead of water to detect neutrinos. While the idea was attractive, the researchers cautioned that it would require a fair bit of luck. “In summary, this is a detector that requires a number of happy accidents to make it feasible. But if these should come to pass, it may provide the least expensive route to a truly large neutrino telescope,” they said.

In the case of the AMANDA experiment, early tests in Greenland and later tests at the South Pole began to provide these happy accidents. “It was discovered that the ice was even more exceptionally clear and has no radioactivities—absolutely quiet, so it is the darkest and quietest and purest place on Earth,” said Karle.

AMANDA was much smaller than the IceCube experiment, and theorists had already argued that to see cosmic neutrinos, the experiment would need to cover a cubic kilometer of ice. Still, the original AMANDA experiment wasn’t just a prototype; if neutrinos arrived at a sufficient rate, it would spot some. In this sense, it was like the original LIGO experiment, which ran for many years in the early 2000s with only a minimal chance of detecting gravitational waves, but it provided the information needed to perform an upgrade in the 2010s that led to repeated detections. Similarly, the hope of pioneers like Halzen was that AMANDA would be able to detect cosmic neutrinos despite its prototype status.

“There was the chance that, with the knowledge at the time, one might get lucky. He certainly tried,” said Karle.

Prototype experiments often follow this pattern. They’re set up in the hope that they could discover something new about the Universe, but they’re built to at least discover any unexpected challenges that would stop a larger experiment.

Major facilities and the National Science Foundation

For experiments that don’t need huge amounts of funding, these prototypes can lead to the real thing, with scientists ratcheting up their ambition at each stage. But for the biggest experiments, the governments that provide the funding tend to want a clearer plan.

Since Prohira is based in the US, let’s consider the US government. The National Science Foundation has a procedure for its biggest projects, called the Major Research Equipment and Facilities Construction program. Since 2009, it has had a “no cost overrun” policy. In the past, if a project ended up costing more than expected, the NSF could try to find additional funding. Now, projects are supposed to estimate beforehand how the cost could increase and budget extra for the risk. If the budget goes too high anyway, projects should compensate by reducing scope, shrinking the experiment until it falls under costs again.

To make sure they can actually do this, the NSF has a thorough review process.

First, the NSF expects that the scientists proposing a project have done their homework and have already put time and money into prototyping the experiment. The general expectation is that about 20 percent of the experiment’s total budget should have been spent testing out the idea before the NSF even starts reviewing it.

With the prototypes tested and a team assembled, the scientists will get together to agree on a plan. This often means writing a report to hash out what they have in mind. The IceCube team is in the process of proposing a second generation of their experiment, an expansion that would cover more ice with detectors and achieve further scientific goals. The team recently finished the third part of a Technical Design Report, which details the technical case for the experiment.

After that, experiments go into the NSF’s official experiment design process. This has three phases, conceptual design, preliminary design, and final design. Each phase ends with a review document summarizing the current state of the plans as they firm up, going from a general scientific case to a specific plan to put an experiment in a specific place. Risks are estimated in detail and list estimates of how likely risks are and how much they will cost, a process that sometimes involves computer simulations. By the end of the process, the project has a fully detailed plan and construction can begin.

Over the next few years, Prohira will test out his proposal. He may get lucky, like the researchers who dug into Antarctic ice, and find a surprisingly clear signal. He may be unlucky instead and find that the complexities of trees, with different spacings and scatterings of leaves, makes the signals they generate unfit for neutrino science. He, and we, cannot know in advance which will happen.

That’s what science is for, after all.

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